Chapter 2 Reviewer: An Integrative Approach to Psychopathology

1. The Multidimensional Integrative Approach

What is it?: The multidimensional integrative approach explains psychopathology by considering multiple factors at the same time. Psychological disorders are understood as the result of interactions among biological, psychological, emotional, social, cultural, and developmental influences.

Six major dimensions: 1. Biological – genetics, brain structure/function, neurotransmitters, hormones. 2. Psychological – learning, conditioning, thoughts, beliefs, cognition, behavior. 3. Emotional – fear, anger, sadness, distress, excitement, emotion regulation. 4. Social/interpersonal – family, friends, relationships, social support, rejection, social stress. 5. Cultural – culture influences how symptoms are understood, experienced, and expressed. 6. Developmental – age, life stage, early experiences, and timing of experiences.

Main idea: No influence operates in isolation. Biological, psychological, emotional, social, cultural, and developmental factors interact in complex ways.

2. One-Dimensional versus Multidimensional Models

One-dimensional model: Attempts to explain behavior or a psychological disorder through one main cause, such as a chemical imbalance, family conflict, or lack of willpower. This is too simplistic because disorders usually involve multiple interacting influences.

Multidimensional model: Considers several causes and the ways they influence one another. Different combinations of biological, psychological, emotional, social, cultural, and developmental factors can contribute to the same disorder.

3. Genetic Contributions to Psychopathology

Genes, D.N.A, and chromosomes: Genes are units of heredity. D.N.A contains genetic information, and genes are located on chromosomes. Genes influence development but usually do not determine characteristics completely; environmental influences also matter.

Genetic locus: The specific location of a gene on a chromosome.

Alleles: Different versions of the same gene.

Genotype: A person's genetic makeup or combination of alleles.

Phenotype: Observable characteristics resulting from genetic and environmental influences.

Polymorphism / S.N.P: Polymorphism refers to genetic variation within a population. A single nucleotide polymorphism (S.N.P) is a variation involving one nucleotide in a D.N.A sequence.

Dominant versus recessive: A dominant allele generally can influence a trait when one copy is present. A recessive allele generally requires two copies to be expressed.

Polygenic influence: Many psychological and behavioral traits are polygenic, meaning they are influenced by many genes. Psychological disorders are generally not caused by one single gene.

4. Genes and Environment

Diathesis-stress model: A diathesis is a vulnerability or predisposition. Stress is an environmental challenge. A disorder may develop when vulnerability interacts with stress. Memory: Vulnerability + Stress to possible disorder.

Reciprocal gene-environment model: Genetically influenced characteristics can affect the environments or experiences a person encounters. In other words, genes can influence behavior and choices, which can influence the environments in which a person finds themselves.

Epigenetics: Environmental experiences can change gene expression without changing the D.N.A sequence itself. One important mechanism is methylation, which can reduce gene transcription; hypomethylation can increase transcription.

Easy comparison: Diathesis-stress = vulnerability is activated by stress. Gene-environment correlation = genetic characteristics can influence the environments experienced. Epigenetics = environment affects how genes are expressed.

5. Neuroscience and Psychopathology

Neuroscience: The study of the nervous system, especially the brain and how it relates to behavior. It examines brain structure, brain function, neurotransmitters, hormones, and brain circuits.

Neuron: A nerve cell that communicates information through electrical and chemical signals.

Action potential: An electrical signal that travels through a neuron.

Terminal button: The end of a neuron that releases neurotransmitters.

Synaptic cleft: The small space between neurons across which neurotransmitters travel.

Neurotransmitter: A chemical messenger released by neurons to communicate with other neurons.

Excitatory versus inhibitory: Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood of neural activity; inhibitory neurotransmitters reduce or regulate activity.

Agonist: A substance that increases or enhances neurotransmitter activity.

Antagonist: A substance that blocks or reduces neurotransmitter effects.

Inverse agonist: A substance that produces an effect opposite to that of an agonist.

Reuptake: The process by which a neurotransmitter is taken back into the neuron that released it.

6. Five Major Neurotransmitters

Glutamate: Major excitatory neurotransmitter. Memory: G.A.S Pedal / go.

gaba: Gamma-aminobutyric acid; primarily inhibitory and helps regulate neural activity. Memory: Brake.

Serotonin: Helps moderate reactions and regulate behavior, including eating, sexual behavior, aggression, and information processing. Memory: Self-Control / Moderation.

Norepinephrine: Associated with arousal, emergency reactions, and alarm responses. Memory: Alert!

Dopamine: Associated with movement, motivation, reward, and reinforcement. Memory: Reward / Motivation / Movement.

7. Brain Circuits and Brain-Behavior Interaction

Brain circuits: Networks of interconnected neurons involved in particular functions. Psychological disorders can involve changes in brain circuits.

Important caution: A change in brain activity does not automatically prove that the brain change originally caused the disorder. Brain functioning can also be influenced by psychological and social experiences.

Psychological treatment and the brain: The chapter discusses evidence that successful psychological treatment can change brain functioning, showing that biological and psychological processes interact.

8. Brain-Gut Connection

Brain-gut connection: The brain and gastrointestinal system communicate and can influence one another.

Microbiota: Microorganisms living in and on the body. The chapter considers how gut processes and microorganisms may relate to brain and behavioral functioning.

9. Behavioral and Cognitive Science

Cognitive science: Studies how people acquire, process, store, and retrieve information.

Learned helplessness: A person learns that their actions do not control negative outcomes and may eventually stop trying, even when change becomes possible. Memory: “Nothing I do matters.”

Modeling / observational learning: Learning by watching other people and copying or adopting observed behaviors.

Prepared learning: A biological or evolutionary tendency to learn certain fears more easily because they were historically relevant to survival.

Implicit memory: Past learning or experiences influence behavior without conscious awareness of remembering the original experience.

10. Emotions and Psychopathology

Emotion: A relatively immediate response involving feelings, thoughts, physiological changes, and behavioral tendencies, often connected to a specific event or situation.

Mood: A more persistent period or state of emotionality that can influence how a person thinks, interprets events, and remembers experiences.

Affect: The observable expression or experience of emotion.

Emotional dysregulation: Difficulty managing emotional responses; emotions may become unusually intense, prolonged, difficult to control, or inappropriate for the situation.

Important emotions: Fear, anger, sadness/distress, and excitement can contribute to or define some psychological disorders.

Mood and cognition: Positive mood tends to support more positive associations and interpretations; negative or depressed mood can bias memories and interpretations toward unpleasant material.

11. Cultural, Social, and Interpersonal Factors

Culture: Culture can influence what people fear, how they interpret symptoms, and how psychological problems are expressed.

Social support: Support from family, friends, relatives, teachers, or other caring people can protect against the harmful effects of stress and trauma.

Interpersonal relationships: The quality of relationships can affect stress, coping, mental health, and the expression of psychological symptoms.

Gender and psychopathology: The likelihood and expression of some psychological problems can be influenced by gender through complex biological, social, cultural, and developmental processes.

12. Life-Span Development

Development: People change across the life span. Biology, environment, relationships, coping, and vulnerability can change with age.

Timing matters: The same experience can affect people differently depending on when it occurs in development.

Critical periods: Periods of development when a person may be especially sensitive to particular experiences.

13. Equifinality

Definition: Equifinality means that different developmental paths can lead to the same outcome.

Example: Three people may all develop depression, but one may have a genetic vulnerability and childhood trauma, another severe adult stress and little social support, and another negative thinking plus relationship problems.

Memory: equifinality = Different Paths, Same Destination.

14. High-Yield Exam Review

Multidimensional integrative approach: Psychological disorders result from interacting biological, psychological, emotional, social, cultural, and developmental influences.

Diathesis-stress: Vulnerability + environmental stress.

Gene-environment correlation: Genetically influenced traits can affect the environments a person experiences.

Epigenetics: Environment changes gene expression without changing the D.N.A sequence.

Neurotransmitters: Glutamate = excitatory; gaba = inhibitory; serotonin = moderation/control; norepinephrine = alarm/arousal; dopamine = reward/movement/motivation.

Behavioral/cognitive concepts: Learned helplessness = giving up after uncontrollable negative experiences; modeling = learning by observing; prepared learning = easier learning of certain fears; implicit memory = past experience influences behavior without conscious recall.

Emotion versus mood: Emotion is generally shorter and more situation-linked; mood is longer-lasting.

Equifinality: Different causes/pathways can produce the same outcome.

Core lesson: Do not explain a psychological disorder using only one cause. Multiple factors interact.