Curriculum Structures

D.S.N Crc Mod 2

Lesson 2 of 12

Courses and programs are often made up of a coherent set of modules, strands or stages. But what constitutes coherence in a curriculum is often in the eye of the beholder. In a linear approach to curriculum, different topics are presented according to a perceived logical progression.

For example, a health science program may be structured in stages, so that each stage represents a different and more complex stage of competence as the student moves from novice to professional. A curriculum structure common to science programs is one where early year courses provide foundational knowledge, move onto advanced topics and finish in more integrative courses such as majors.

Curriculum structure is like the skeleton of a body: strong and in balance, giving direction and support to activities and determining the outline of what it represents. It needs careful consideration and planning. The characteristics of the 'skeleton' may be determined by the method of teaching, for example problem-based learning. It may also be helpful to consider one theme of the curriculum … as the spine around which other themes are arranged.

Another classic example of a curriculum structure that pays particular attention to continuity of knowledge levels or stages is the 'spiral curriculum', which emphasises learning as building on prior knowledge (and learning). The spiral curriculum helps staff organise the program into integrated themes or topics that require further depth as students progress through the program. This approach is based on an iterative revisiting of topics, subjects or themes throughout the course. While revisiting of topics is common in any course, the spiral curriculum deliberately structures opportunities for deepening understanding as each encounter builds on the previous one so that the competence of students gradually develops without proving too overwhelming (Harden & Stamper, 1999(opens in a new tab)

After the mastery of the initial topic, the student 'spirals upwards' as new knowledge is introduced in the next course. In medical education, for example, students engage with topics as phases of increasing complexity, moving from learning about normal physiological patterns to abnormal and develop and translating this knowledge in simulations through to working in hospital wards.

Disciplines which are more socially critical – such as cultural studies or some strands of philosophy, history or politics, structure curriculum around significant social issues. The curriculum is structured, according to Perry (see Lochrie, 1989(opens in a new tab)) so as to develop student reasoning and assist them to move from a dualistic (right versus wrong) view of the universe (where every question has an answer and belief systems are unquestioned); towards a more relativistic view. Ultimately students develop commitments to a relativist position through conscious examination and consideration of alternatives. A more socially critical curriculum structure “seeks to develop a critical consciousness in students so that they become aware of the present ills of our society and are motivated to alleviate them”.

Rethinking curriculum

Critics of typical discipline-led approaches argue that the typical approach to higher education curriculum continues to prioritise instructivism, and situates the student as passive learner.

“Rather than promote student agency and self-direction, the prevailing model remains focused on teaching, namely what “instructors” impart, not what students learn. This attitude inevitably treats learners as empty vessels to be filled rather than as fundamental co-creators of their own education”. (opens in a new tab)

Kazin's argument asks challenges questions of the structural model of higher education (e.g. highly grade-focused and artificially time-bound increments of learning, which disadvantage many types of learners and constrain learner agency). The following design principles are proposed:

1. Reflect transparent, real-world competencies

2. Emphasise active and experiential learning

3. Integrate authentic assessment as a key component of learning

4. Stage and scaffold to develop capability

5. Provide actionable feedback rather than grades

6. Drive diversity, equity, inclusion and belonging.

The chapter is worth reading for a provocative exploration of what higher education could look like if courses and student progression through courses could be approached with a learner-centred mindset. Do Kazin's arguments help you to imagine new ways of structuring curriculum?

Reflective Journal

In your Reflective Journal, consider the following prompts with respect to your area of teaching interest:

1. Which curriculum structure would be most appropriate in your area? Why?

2. What are the strengths and weaknesses of that structure?

3. What is missed by choosing one structure over another?

To what extent are dominant structures consistent or inconsistent with learner-centred approaches (or rhetoric)?

Of course, many curricula will not neatly fit into a single structure and may combine different elements from more than one archetype of curriculum structure. The intended curriculum is more often negotiated between people with contending views, so the final structure may represent a consensus (or conceded) position. As an individual professional, you will often have more influence on the immediate learning environment, rather than on the overall curriculum of a larger study program.

The structure of the curriculum is also shaped by the kinds of knowledge that will be developed throughout the program and course. Biggs and Tang (2011a) (opens in a new tab) note two (2) common kinds of knowledge in higher education curricula:

Declarative (propositional) knowledge refers to knowing about things and is 'declared' in the spoken and written word. Functioning knowledge is knowledge based on the academic declarative knowledge base that is put to work. These distinctions are important in sorting out whether students need to understand, as in 'know about', or, as in 'put to empowered use'.

Reflective Journal

In your Reflective Journal, identify at least two (2) kinds of learning activities that would be most relevant to your area. Consider how these would build a particular kind of knowledge and whether there are any pitfalls.

Learning without reflection is a waste, reflection without learning is dangerous

(Confucius)

Models of instruction

Discussion Board

The models of instruction outlined in the subsequent sections of this module invite you to account for how different models strengthen curriculum design and delivery.

After taking a first look through the six models of instruction introduced in this module, think about which approaches are most relevant to your own teaching or professional context.

Then make a post on the Discussion Board(opens in a new tab) that identifies for your peers which two models of instruction you think are most applicable to your area and explain why they stand out to you. What is it about these models that makes them a good fit for your discipline, learners, or teaching goals?

Feel free to draw on your own experiences and examples from your practice to illustrate your thinking.

Thinking this through supports your progress to Assignment 2 - where you'll propose and defend an appropriate model for your teaching context.

Inclusive and transition curriculum

Key concepts: Inclusion, widening participation, cultural awareness, transition pedagogies, flexible learning, social engagement, Indigenous pedagogies, cultural safety, both-ways education.

Seeing diversity as an enriching source to be tapped into underpins an approach to inclusive teaching as outlined by Broughan and Hunt (2013) (opens in a new tab). In order to strive for successful learning for all students, they suggest that an inclusive approach calls for a focus on:

Transition to the skills and discourse of the academic environment;

Inclusive and flexible curriculum design;

Social engagement;

Planning for inclusion;

Employing inclusive language; and

Inclusive assessment.

Broughan and Hunt (2013; p 183.) (opens in a new tab) refer to the 'massification' of higher education, which is characterised by broader participation. So, what are the implications for educators and curriculum planners in a way that is equitable and inclusive of aspects such as: gender, English proficiency, cultural background, age and differences in ability or disability? Considering an inclusive curriculum leads us to ponder the specific strategies and planning choices made to increase the accessibility of the higher education environment and academic discourse for students new to university. This is, however, not a straightforward and neat proposition. As Stirling and Rossetto (2015; p 18.) (opens in a new tab) note, widening participation countered by social inclusion policy may create 'worrying tensions.' Logically, it is desirable to cater to the needs of transition students, but a diverse cohort does post challenges to the curriculum designer and educator

Indigenous Knowledge

Of particular relevance, when focussing on inclusive curriculum, is the manner in which Indigenous culture should be acknowledged and addressed in the Australian higher education context. Christie and Asmar (2013) (opens in a new tab) describe the role of 'understanding Australian Indigenous knowledge' traditions. How might this inform curriculum design decisions?

The idea of 'cultural safety', which centres around the idea of trust, is an important climate to develop for all learning environments – but is of particular relevance for Indigenous students and educators. Additionally, the practice of 'both-ways education' is encouraged, where academic disciplinary positions and Indigenous knowledge can be incorporated in a complementary manner.

Problem-Based Learning

Lesson 5 of 12

(opens in a new tab) explains that Problem-Based Learning (P.B.L) has its origins in the 1960s in medical education in Canada. It was initially employed to emulate the reasoning of a skilled practitioner and has developed to be an entrenched methodology in medical and heath school teaching. (opens in a new tab) states that fifty percent of Australian medical doctors are graduates of institutions using P.B.L-based curricula.

More recently, the approach has been appropriated by a range of other higher education disciplines, with some variations in delivery developing, although certain aspects remain constant and true to its origins. Briggs (2015) (opens in a new tab) discusses key aspects of P.B.L, including the idea of engaged, self-directed learners looking to deconstruct 'root problems.' She (noting this is Saga Briggs, not John Biggs) also offers terms such as 'facilitated problem solving.' Additionally, P.B.L is often characterised by collaborative tasks, educators acting as facilitators, and the problem acting as a 'vehicle'.

(opens in a new tab) identifies five (5) goals of P.B.L, being:

Flexible knowledge;

Effective problem-solving skills;

Self-Directed Learning (S.D.L) skills;

Effective collaboration skills; and

Intrinsic motivation.

In broad terms, P.B.L will support students through a set collaborative process. An example of this is outlined in this promotional video for P.B.L Business courses (at Monash University):

Collaborative learning, inquiry-based and problem-based learning are shown to yield deeper learning gains for students, as well as higher levels of academic achievement on complex tasks, and increase student responsibility. Explore the range of evidence-based instructional strategies under topic heading"Principle 5: Small Groups Engage Students (opens in a new tab)" (pp. 32 to 42).

Research-led learning

Lesson 6 of 12

For many of us we would be familiar with the role of research in the post-graduate setting, but to what extent does participatory research influence our undergraduate curriculum? Sure, research informs content and skills in our courses – but what role can it play in drawing students to participate in knowledge creation through research? It this desirable for our undergraduate learners?

Jenkins and Healey (2012) (opens in a new tab) describe two (2) axes to situate the function of research for students. The first is the range of student engagement, from being an audience to an active participant. The second looks at the aspects of research that are emphasised, from the content of research through to the research processes and problems. Mapping these aspects produces a framework showing four (4) distinct research function curricula quadrants.

Image summary: A 2x2 matrix diagram categorizing research-integrated teaching based on two axes. The vertical axis ranges from students as an audience at the bottom to students as participants at the top, while the horizontal axis ranges from an emphasis on research content on the left to an emphasis on research processes and problems on the right. This creates four quadrants: research-led (audience/content), research-oriented (audience/process), research-tutored (participant/content), and research-based (participant/process). The diagram illustrates how different levels of student engagement and instructional focus define distinct pedagogical approaches to research in education.

Food for thought

You may wish to reflect on the following in your Reflective Journal:

- Why should research skills be incorporated into undergraduate courses?

- How might research be developed over the duration of an undergraduate course?

- What is the possible relevance of the framework to postgraduate courses?

- How might the framework be used in conjunction with other models (such as P.B.L) to support student-centred curriculum design?

No problem can withstand the assault of sustained thinking

Authentic Work-Integrated Learning

Work-Integrated Learning (W.I.L) looks to link disciplinary academic learning with authentic professional experience. Generally speaking, it is an overarching term that applies to learning experiences such as (but not limited to): placements, practicums, fieldwork, internships, and other learning experience (e.g. simulations such as clinical simulations or mock courts) where a third party (e.g. industry stakeholder) is involved.

(opens in a new tab) describes how it is characterised by the integration of theory and higher order learning opportunities in an authentic setting, a key feature being that it 'focusses on the work itself as a learning activity', recognising 'the potential of the activity, context and purposes of work to develop high-level knowledge and skills.' Smith and Worsfold (2015) (opens in a new tab) add that, despite the sometimes chaotic nature of W.I.L, maintaining constructive alignment of the Intended Learning Outcomes (I.L.O) to the activities and assessments is key to assuring the learning potential of the method.

Often the idea of 'communities of practice', flexible learning pathways, professional partnerships, negotiated learning, and reflective learning may be emphasised as key aspects of authentic workplace learning environments.

Mobile Technologies and W.I.L

Lesson 8 of 12

The W.I.L paradigm places students in an authentic workplace learning environment, but may impact on their access to traditional campus-based learning resources. One strategy to counter this, is to harness the affordances offered by mobile technologies to connect students to information and support them with an e-learning environment. It is a way by which the traditional campus-based learning supports and interactions (lectures, tutorials, workshops, workgroups and library services) can be re-envisioned and adapted to support a physically dispersed student group who are 'learning on the job.'

Image summary: A circular diagram titled "Navigating the WPL landscape" showing a core set of internal actions surrounded by an outer ring of strategic goals. The inner circle consists of six elements: deepening reflection, staying professional and safe, considering issues of time and place, planning learning activities, initiating dialogue, and networking, with creating learning opportunities on-the-go at the center. These are encompassed by an outer ring containing four overarching phases: sense making, awareness raising, purposeful planning, and engaging. The diagram illustrates a conceptual framework for navigating workplace learning through a cycle of specific behaviors and strategic objectives.

Food for Thought

You may wish to reflect on the following in your Reflective Journal:

- How might W.I.L be a good fit for your area? What opportunities exist for effective W.I.L?

- What pre- and post-W.I.L activities and learning experiences will support an effective W.I.L curriculum? (i.e. support students to apply their learning, reflect on their experiences? put it all into practice?)

- How might the role of mobile technologies in Will be used to enhance the experience?

- To what extent would The Mobile Technology Capacity Building Framework for Workplace Learning assist in the planning and delivery of W.I.L?

Service Learning

Key concepts: Community service, social justice, reconciliation, the Catholic tradition.

While service learning (S.L) exists in various forms across higher education contexts, a useful working definition is that it is an immersive experience which combines academic study with service to the community. Chambers and Lavery (2012) { (opens in a new tab)} remark on the added component of critical reflection as key to S.L. Additionally, they include the importance of reciprocity between"those serving and those being served".

As far back as 1996, when looking for a definition of S.L in the America context, Furco (1996) (opens in a new tab) describes this reciprocity:

Service learning programs are distinguished from other approaches to experiential education by their intention to equally benefit the provided and the recipient of the service being provided and the learning that is occurring.

Chambers and Lavery (2012) (opens in a new tab) outline that S.L usually operates within the areas of welfare, empowerment, and agency – citing examines of its implementation as provided by Levison (1994), including: work in hospitals, schools, nursing homes, day-care centres, and facilities for people living with disabilities.

They go on to suggest that a S.L program should consist of four (4) basic elements:

Image summary: A diagram of Service Learning Elements divided into four quadrants. The quadrants define engagement as meaningful hands-on service for community needs, balance as equal importance between service and learning goals, reciprocity as the community defining its own needs and tasks, and implementation as interdependent stages of preparation, action, reflection, and demonstration. The point is to outline the four core components required for effective service learning.

Service learning in a Catholic context

In a Catholic educational context, service learning is a formative practice that brings together academic learning, service to others, and critical reflection in ways that express the Church's commitment to human dignity, solidarity, and the common good. By engaging students in meaningful partnerships with communities, service learning invites them to apply disciplinary knowledge to real-world challenges while developing a deeper awareness of social justice and their responsibility to contribute to positive social change. Through this process, students learn not only about society's needs but also with and from community members, fostering humility, reciprocity, and a commitment to serving others (Rodríguez-Izquierdo, 2022(opens in a new tab)).

For Catholic higher education institutions, service learning aligns closely with their mission to educate graduates who are intellectually competent, ethically grounded, and committed to the flourishing of others. Research highlights that service learning supports student formation by cultivating civic responsibility, social consciousness, and a disposition toward service, while strengthening the institution's engagement with the wider community. In this way, service learning becomes a practical expression of Catholic social teaching, enabling students to integrate faith, learning, and action as they work collaboratively with communities to address real needs and promote the common good.

Curriculum co-creation: students as partners

Lesson 10 of 12

Key concepts: Reciprocity, power, trust, challenge, responsibility.

Student engagement is a central theme in curriculum design and student-staff partnerships have more recently been portrayed as a primary path towards engagement. In higher education, partnerships between students and academic staff in learning and teaching can be understood as a “a collaborative, reciprocal process through which all participants have the opportunity to contribute equally, although not necessarily in the same ways, to curricular or pedagogical conceptualisation, decision-making, implementation, investigation or analysis.” (Cook-Sather et al., 2014(opens in a new tab); pp 6 to 7.).

Some ways of working with students as partners in curriculum design include:

Student reference groups: testing course design ideas with students;

Students as researchers: carrying out literature reviews, finding case studies, conducting focus groups with other students (as peers) about their experiences;

Students as content creators: identifying relevant resources and making new resources for a course;

Students as testers: of the engagement activities within the course.

Dunne and Zandstra (2011) (opens in a new tab) proposed a model that examines the dimensions and decisions behind the different intentions in student partnerships:

Image summary: A conceptual diagram illustrating the integration of students into educational change. The central goal is surrounded by four quadrants describing student roles: as evaluators of their experience, participants in decision-making, partners and co-creators, and agents for change. These roles are linked by four directional arrows emphasizing student voice, the student as a driver, student action, and the university as a driver. The diagram outlines a framework for shifting students from passive feedback providers to active, collaborative partners in institutional and pedagogical development.

What's next?

Lesson 11 of 12

In this module, we looked at a variety of curriculum structures and how they can provide the skeleton for our curricula. We then looked at how we can flesh out these skeletons with some specific models of instruction (such as problem-based, work-integrated, and service learning) to see how they can strengthen curriculum design and delivery. In the third and final module, we will explore designing coherent and aligned activities to create effective and engaging learning environments.

4. We do not learn from experience,

5. we learn from reflecting on experience

6. (John Dewey)

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