Global History of Urban Design

H.S V.L 01: The History and Theory of the City as a Project

What is “the city” that we live and work in?

- The city is not a self-organized landscape/organsim (so Avermaete)

- “Learning from Las Vegas” versus “Delirious New York” to capacity of a city depends on the activity of the city

- A man-made material and spatial project, so actions and design made by men. The city is the result of a combination of willful acts (city is result of architects, planners, urban designers, etcetera) that can be uncovered, mapped, understood, and explained. Cities are no incidental occurrences; they are the material results of intentional decisions and processes.

- Politicians, investors and citizens, architects and urban designers all play a crucial role in the development of a city.

Forma Ubis Romae and the Logic of the City of Rome

The Forma Ubis Romae is a massive marble map of the city of Rome created between 203 and 211 A.C. It consists of 180 stone tables, which together describe and understand the logics of the city of Rome. A very detailed description of private and public parts of Rome, help us understand the social groups, economic situations, etcetera

Vitruvius and the Ten Books of Architecture

Vitruvius talks about the different components of the city and how to construct them. He also shows certain typologies of houses and water systems, as well as defense of the city.

Cities are always a combination of:

• Building and construction

- Ideas and concepts, as to say a projection of reasoning and theory

• Fabrica and ratiocinatio

Architects have been trying to understand the logics of Architecture since the early days.

Architecture is made up of different disciplines and various skills. Architecture exists through fabrica (making, constructing) and ratiocinatio (thinking). Fabrica is the continuous and routine practice made out of matter by hand. The outcome is what was intended to be. Ratiocinatio is what shows how and to what degree things have been made with skill and calculation.

Alberti's Idea of The City

-Idea of a city as project, estbalishing relation:

-between existing city and city to come

-between history and future city

- Alberti suggests that the city can be seen as a bigger set of ideas and that every part of the city makes a whole. He compares the construction of a house with a miniature city. He says that almost everything relevant to the establishment of a city must be considered when building a house; it should easily and conveniently create a peaceful, tranquil, and refined life.

Image summary: A circular polar coordinate map showing a geographic area defined by an outer boundary and featuring a winding river that flows through the center from the top to the bottom.

- He defines architecture as a project of building the city, as establishing a relationship between the repetition of that which already exists and the production of the new

Alberti's plan was used a century later but in comparison, Pope Sixtus 5 focuses on the religious monuments of the city, creating big axes between the main religious monuments.

shows monuments and shape of Rome (mapping/serving a city to answer question: what is a city?) He describes the city in a circular description made of silhouettes (walls) and all kinds of dots which were the bigger monuments in the city.

Urban Design as Engagement

Urban design is about engaging with certain characteristics and issues. It is about engaging with a certain condition in a particular situation and not about creating an ideal. It is a “reflective conversation with the situation”. There are 11 characteristics that need to be considered:

- The ground: topography plays an important role in urban design, as it influences the form of the city and the streets. to before planning you would measure the ground

→Examples

○ Can be in relation to religion and trade

- Constantinople to it's form and organization is a reaction to its hilly site, with the waters of the Bosporus to the South and the harbor of the Golden Horn to the East, determined by its ground = topography and the river surrounding it

- Boston to different axeces but not clear why the city is spread out like that to need to understand the topography to notice that higher standing houses are built up on the hill and the lower you go the lower the people are classified

- Urban layout as well as their building typologies, also depend upon the characteristics of the soil, as the foundations of Amsterdam, the modest profile of Berlin and the high-rise character of Manhattan illustrate (could only build the skyscrapers in specific areas, depending on the soil). Time and again, the height of the water table and the bearing capacity of the ground determine the architecture of the city. to foundation of the entire city had to be built on wooden pile foundation, since it was built on swompy grounds

Image summary: A three-part geological diagram of Manhattan Island. Figure 1 is a map showing the distribution of eight different rock types across the island, bounded by the Hudson River to the north and west, the East River to the east, and Long Island to the south. Figure 2 is a cross-sectional profile from the Battery to Spuyten Duyvil Creek, showing the elevation and subsurface rock layers. Figure 3 is a topographic profile of the island, labeling specific elevations at the Battery, Park, Croton Reservoir, Manhattanville, Fort Washington, and Spuyten Duyvil Creek.

- Italian cities are situated in higher topographical points in order to properly defend from sieges. Sometimes the topography is easy like Las Vegas, sometimes it is more complex. In order to understand cities we have to understand the topographical conditions like in Scollay Square.

Also, the soil plays an important role.

• Amsterdam: houses built on wooden poles because of the bad soil

Berlin: sandy ground, thus not too high

• New York: different building heights due to different grounds

Lisbon: design changed after earthquake  urban blocks and grid

Tokyo: after earthquake, houses don't touch and there are no parting walls, although built densely, they adapted to circumstances and develop new principles to there are almost no parting walls (shared walls between two buildings)

• Materials: urban design is a way of engaging with ma and produced. Local materials are important for cities and provide a city image.

• Materials: urban design is a way of engaging with materials that are locally sourced

Examples:

- Baked bricks in Colombia (Bogota), which determine the urban tissue to lots of selfmade houses (Las Torres del Parque Housing Complex y el Bario Bolivar)

- England: limestone is used in Bath, materiality of the historical city “Royal Crescent” binds to the new city.

Image summary: A high-angle photograph of the Royal Crescent in Bath, England, featuring a grand, sweeping semi-circular terrace of Georgian townhouses built from honey-colored stone. The architecture is characterized by uniform neoclassical columns and a curved facade that overlooks a wide, grassy lawn. The surrounding area consists of densely packed stone buildings with grey slate roofs and scattered green trees.

•Climate: urban design is how one can move in the city considering the climate.

(Vitruvius and Hippocrates) Before it was thought that laying the direction of streets and alleys on the lines of division between 2 winds would be better for the climate of the city. Layout of the city is influenced by the climate. to Example - Montreal has all kinds of urban functions underground, so one can move from one place to the other underground because it is very hot in summer and very cold in winter to underground path-system

- Bologna there are various Portici, which are galleries that provide cover from rain and the sun. System of Portici:

: A line drawing map of an urban street grid, where certain street edges are highlighted with thick black lines. A caption in Italian specifies that these marked lines represent currently present porticoes, and notes a precise measurement of 37.882 kilometers determined through cartographic digitalization.

Image summary: A 1962 map of Montreal's Indoor City showing a concentrated network of linked projects represented by a dense, black cluster within the city's grid of streets. The map includes a legend identifying the network and metro lines, along with a north arrow and a scale bar ranging from 0 to 200 meters.

Image summary: A map titled Montreal's Indoor City 1969, showing the distribution of an indoor network across a city grid. The map uses dark shaded areas to represent the network and dashed lines to represent the Metro, illustrating several disconnected clusters of indoor paths and their relationship to the metropolitan transit lines.

Image summary: A map from 1979 illustrating Montreal's Indoor City, featuring a grid of city streets overlaid with a network of indoor connections shown as dark gray shapes, areas of projects linked in light gray, and two dashed lines representing the Metro system.

Image summary: A 1989 map of Montreal's Indoor City showing a network of interconnected underground paths overlaid on a city street grid. The map identifies the underground network as dark grey areas, linked projects as light grey shaded regions, and the path of the Metro as dashed lines.

• Culture: urban design instigates and expresses particular cultures.  Examples

- passages in Paris developed during a period of growing bourgeoise, capitalist culture in the 18th, beginning of the 19th century, through the “flaneur culture” to reaction to the emerging capital culture (to be seen, representing yourself)

○ Benjamin Walter (Author) wrote about the flâneur  someone walking through the city just to be seen  bourgoeis culture

- In London, Garden Squares were a new sort of urban figure related to the expression of cultural norms and forms of collectivity in the city, as they are neither fully public not fully private. Also a culture of exclusivity created by green spaces only accessible by residents around green squares.

• Philosophy: urban design relates to bigger ideas. Plato believed in the harmonization of the whole (the city) with the part (the individual). He said there should be 12 sections and each citizen would have 2 residences, an urban and central and a rural and peripheral, so everyone would have equal access to the city.

Plato philosophize over the idea of the ideal city. His philosophical viewpoint formed the basis for planning Piraeus by Hippodamus of Milet.

• Religion: religious principles are very important.  Examples - Early Islamic cities had the „Sassanid ideological structure“ to An ideological structure within the Islamic belief. The city as an orthogonal figure was divided into four districts with the great mosque and the palace at the very center. The central combination of palace and mosque symbolically embodied the importance of both to it formed the center of the city to the rest subordinates itself:

○ the religious power

○ the political power in the city.

- In 762 B.C these principles also formed the basis for the planning of Baghdad, the new capital of the Empire, with all the appropriate symbolism of a round city with axial division.

- This religious aspect was however not only a matter of general urban planning but also of the everyday urban fabric. Islamic Law, which itself was extracted from the Qu'ran and the Summa, also formed the basis for the formulation of Principles of building solutions or Akham. These include principles by which one is encouraged to fully exercise one's personal rights, without harming others. It also outlines codes concerning acoustic and visual forms of privacy, as well as the rights of the community in public sharis and finas (thoroughfares and alleys). In cities like Tunis these principles are traceable in the urban fabric.

• Politics: urban design is strongly related to politics. Urban design has been used to underline the importance of existing political systems to Examples

- Berlin, Stalin Allee (Karl-Marx-Allee) and its rudimental, neoclassical base of foundation of a new form of urban design, which was built collectively. to The socialists wanted to create a socialist city

- Chandigarh and its representation of new political ideas of the Indians. Le Corbusier had to plan the city. to The Equal City by Le Corbusier represented the equality of the citizen and so the new Indian idea of democracy, through a mix of house typologies and status levels, which had never been seen before.

- ☐ Not repeat the British style but create a new one (has a grid)

• Social: social life has been a prime concern of urban design. to Examples

• In the beginning of the 20th century, there were many social protests in

Barcelona complaining about the living conditions, which lead to a new plan of the city. This was very equal, made of squared blocks, so the citizens could move easily and have equal access to the city center, as well as green space and citizens are socially equal and socially inclusive. “Manzanas”-blocks

Image summary: An antique city plan of Barcelona titled PLANO de la ciudad de BARCELONA Proyecto para su reforma y ensanche. The map illustrates a proposed urban expansion, featuring a structured grid system of streets extending from the dense, irregular layout of the old city center toward the coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

Urban design can create utility, but it can also become social unjust and separate social groups like in colonial cities. to Meknes (marocco) for example is divided in 2 parts, the European city for colonizers (modern) and the indigenous city with the “zone sanitaire”, meaning non-built areas in between leading to social segregation. to “urban apartheid”

Urban Design can be democratic but can also be anti-democratic and keep social groups apart.

• Economic: urban design can change the economy and economic concerns are often a key driver of urban design. to Examples

• London, new inventions were made which changed the small-scale old buildings into large formal urban complexes along Regent Street, raising the value of the ground.

Paris, new social housing of the so-called Grands Ensembles, which was constructed in the latter half of the 20th century, was planned on cheap grounds in the periphery of the city (outskirts), where they created banlieues of satellite housing estates that were disconnected from public services and spaces of the city center. They had to be built cheap because the were built rapidly.

• Technical: urban design is linked to technical inventions.  Examples

- the steel skeleton and the elevator made Chicago move from a low-rise city to a high-rise city. to through technical development a new urban image was created

- In Dessau Tôrten, rationalization and mechanization of the new urban neighborhood as main considerations in the urban layout and the aesthetics of the building. You can see the prefabricated elements. Promoting the relationship between rationalized building technique and the architecture of the city would become part of the standard rhetoric of the architects of the modern movement.

• Art: was mostly used as critic  here: criticism of urban design.  Examples,

- criticizing mass production, or the fact that sometimes the workers are forgotten while new buildings are built, making them live in poor conditions to in Saint Denis (Paris)

- Also inspiration like the “Città di Fondazione” based on a painting called “the Square”

Against this background, urban design appears as a project of engagement with a variety of realities and factors, all of which contribute to the character of the condition that we call the city.

Manhattan -> can only build high on orange part

Figure 75 summary: A black and white photograph showing an open plaza surrounded by austere, multi-story stone buildings characterized by rows of rectangular windows. A tall, slender, rectangular tower stands centrally in the background, rising above the surrounding structures. A few figures stand in the plaza, and a vintage car is parked on the left side.

Figure 77 summary: A photograph of various consumer product packages, including detergent boxes such as Matic, Tide, Omo, Dash, and Ajax, as well as Java coffee boxes, scattered across a grassy field.

The Project of History and Theory

The city is not only a project for architects and urban designers, but also for historians and theoreticians. Historians and theoreticians have adopted particular methodological and conceptual vantage points to approach what we call the city. The history of modern urban planning has the following 3 pedigrees:

• The city as experience: people write about the city basing on their own experiences of image, sounds and smells. The city does not appear as a back-drop, but as a new product of civilization; as a künstlicher lebensraum, which touches and influences the mentality of the people.

• The city as organism: rather than the form, the functioning of the city is central. The built and non-built, etcetera all function together. The city is one big organism, one big ecology, where buildings, nature, etcetera live together. This model became popular in French and Scottish circles in the 18th century, especially in the work of the biologist and planner Patrick Geddes. He introduced a whole new vocabulary to talk about the city in terms of heart, lungs, veins and tissue. This paradigm approaches the city as a spatial and social body, with such a complex structure and organization, and such a capacity for growth and adaptation, that it resembles a biological environment. The organic paradigm opens up the possibility for discourses on the illness of the body, as well as on its cure and healing.

• The city as political archive: Historians looked at the city as a political archive of laws, rights, and privileges, which together form the legitimation for the political ideas that develop the city. In this perspective, written sources prevail over buildings and objects.

75. Aprilia, central square of the Citta di fondazione, 1936. 76. Giorgio de Chirico, The Square, 1913. 77. Still of movie. Jean-Luc Godard, 2 ou 3 Choses que je sais d'elle, 1967 78. Grand Ensemble Lochères in Sarcelles by the architects Henri-Labourdette and Boileau. 1955-1970.

An Architectural History

Camillo Sitte looked at cities and drew plans of them to try to understand what made them so qualitative. He looked at the relationship between buildings, monuments, squares, etcetera, and he looked at the aesthetic of the city.

Werner Hegemann & Elbert Peets looked at the composing elements of the city, such as squares throughout history, streets, passages, galleries, etcetera

Saverion Muratori looked at different examples like Venice very closely. He watched them evolve, as the architectural history of a city is very important to be able to understand the transformation of cities.

Aldo Rossi focuses on building templates that change the history of the city and tries to understand how bigger entities build the city.

H.S V.L 02: Of Rituals, Water and Mud: The Urban Revolution in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley

- Geographer Gordon Childe says that the urban revolution took place as from the 9th millennia B.C in 6 regions simultaneously and independently around the world; Mesoamerica (middle America), Ades, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus and China.

- Fast changes happened, which had to do with new social groupings and settlement forms based on ideas of economical and agricultural exchange but also defense. With these new social groups came what we could call a city.

- Through a combination of migration and trade this new “modus vivendi” expanded and developed into large complex social and cultural systems characterized by

- Political organization

• Class inequalities

- The emergence of a new artefact in the territory: the city.

- The emergence of these new settlements has to do with a Neolithic (R)evolution:

- which represents technological changes, such as technological irrigation, the invention of new tools related to special materials like obsidian, leading to new concept of time (cyclical)

Image summary: A technical plan drawing of Enclosure E at the western plateau, showing a blue-shaded central area enclosed by a light-colored boundary, featuring two smaller internal structures and a scale bar at the bottom.

U×

- linked to the growth of harvest (faster harvesting).

Image summary: A site plan of Göbekli Tepe featuring multiple circular and rectangular archaeological enclosures. The map uses a color-coded legend to identify Layer II in yellow-orange, Layer III in green, and uncertain layers in beige. Red rectangles mark the locations of T-Pillars. Four primary circular enclosures are labeled A, B, C, and D, with enclosure D being the largest and most central, containing several T-Pillars along its perimeter and one in the center.

- These technological innovations lead to the domestication of wild plants, animals, and agriculture, which can now be cultivated near one's house and don't have to be gathered and hunted anymore, leading to a more sedentary way of life.

All these aspects led to an urban revolution respectively to different consequences such as:

• Resource surplus: more harvest than needed. Resources can now be kept and stored for a group of people in the long run (=invested in settlements).

• Social surplus: because people now live in groups in small settlements, they can create safety for one another as well as reciprocity.

• Cultural surplus: through the exchange of cultural knowledge and skills, new artefacts, new crafts, new settlements etcetera emerge.

The settlements of Göbekli Tepe and Catal Hüyük in nowadays Turkey and ee-rahn cannot be qualified as full-fledged cities, but they illustrate how innovative proto-urban settlements emerged that were organized according to new principles.

Göbekli Tepe, Turkey 9000 B.C – (First Urban Settlement)

Exemplifies how the new sedentary way of life brought a new conception of time (cyclical), which was expressed in the prominence of religious buildings in the organization of the city.

- Located on top of hilly side in the center of the town => centrality

- Everyday fabric of the settlement consists of houses surrounding oval temples for religious rituals.

- Oval temples partially dug in the ground with pilasters made from local quarry stone and a roof on top. Columns where holding the roof.

Ritual spaces relate to time. Rituals celebrated the new ideas of time.

- T-shaped pillars out of local stone were decorated on a specific way with drawings reminding of domesticated animals, agriculture and plants, which were the bases of the temples.

Catal Hüyük, Turkey 7400 B.C

- At the time the most complex and largest settlement in Southwest Asia.

- Completely domesticated agriculture, animals and wild plants.

- Emerged from the trade to achieve commodity of the Neolithic

Image summary: A line drawing depicting four different views of a stone sculpture. The primary view shows a T-shaped pillar with a carved feline animal in relief across the top horizontal section. Other views show the side and back profiles of the pillar, with the final view revealing additional carvings on the reverse side, including a bovine animal, a small four-legged creature, and a bird.

Image summary: A line drawing depicting a three-dimensional architectural plan of a rectangular structure. The layout consists of a perimeter wall with several protruding vertical supports or pillars and a grid of similar pillars arranged within the central interior space.

period: trade of precious material: obsidian (Lavagestein), which was very sharp, used for agriculture tools (you could harvest grains quicker).

- Located on 2 hills and made from mudbricks made from mud sediment along rivers (fluvial area) but also Timber (before Catal Hüyük was only made of stone) to one story housing

- Completely made of single rectangular houses with a kitchen, sleeping room and a ritual space. In comparison to catal Hüyük the ritual functions are interiorized in the houses, placed in the middle of the houses, this had to do with the domestication of animal. to there was a 3 divided house

- Houses were densely put together to support one another and for

Image summary: A technical line drawing of an archaeological excavation site, depicting a rectangular recessed structure with staggered walls, steps, and various carved architectural elements. A scale bar at the bottom right indicates a measurement of 2 metres.

defense. So, in building with adobe (=Lehmziegel), one house stabilizes the other house while the density creates the social surplus of safety (defense) to oriented to defend the city. Therefore, there are no streets or doors, so people circulated through the roofs where the entrances were. The places in between the houses were made for trash.

-> moving on rood not streets. Roofs are Public.

- Not patrimonial and matrimonial society, so very equal society, no gender divisions nor wealth disbalances leads to “kinship” leads to everyone looks out for everyone

___

The Bronze Age Cities of Mesopotamia

- At 5000 B.C, a whole set of cities with culture and political centrality aka Sumerian cities emerged between the rivers (Tigris & Euphrates). It is called the Bronze Age or the Region of invention, due to the fertile grounds as well as the metals found there, especially copper which could be combined with tin to create bronze (they were rich in agriculture)

-Sumerian civilisation

- People from the hinterland came here in search of trading, due to the new tools for agriculture, as well as other inventions like chariots.

- Sumerian Cities settlements were:

- independent, self-governing cities with a basic political unit (cf Greece city-state)

- Religion was the main motive of the cities and not only geography

- Each city belonged to a god or goddess. The temple, the house of divinity was located in the center. They focused on rituals, economic and regional administrative activity.

Image summary: A line drawing map showing the locations of three ancient sites: Eridu, Uruk, and Sosa. Uruk is the largest area, depicted as a large circular region with internal contour lines, structured ruins, and a scale bar indicating a distance of 2 km. Eridu and Sosa are smaller, separate mapped areas containing structural outlines and contour lines.

- Each town entrusted to take care of a mortal king (lugal in sumerian) or governor (ensi).

Sumarian cities

Uruk c. 2350 B.C

- Provision of raw materials unavailable locally

- Complexes of religious buildings attributed to the titular deity (=godhood) to functioned originally as the religious, administrative, and economic center.

- In these centers maps of geographic and urban space were produced in the form of line drawings on clay tables, which soon would become the convention for representing architecture and the city.

Image summary: A map of the City of Uruk featuring a walled enclosure containing two primary areas: the Eanna District and the Kullaba District. The map is overlaid with overlapping circles, each representing a 400 meter or 5 minute walk radius used to define urban districts. To the northeast of the city is the Ancient Euphrates River, which is now dry, while a small context map in the bottom right shows the site's broader geographic location. A note indicates that the city wall contains 900 bastions spaced 12 meters apart, though these are not shown for clarity.

- Cities as Uruk and Ur saw the development of new building techniques for the construction of monumental architecture, but also of religious art and of cuneiform writing to record economic data as well as myths, events and rituals.

- City walls in the middle with religious centers and all kinds of houses in between.

- City divided in districts, Eanna district in the center with only religious buildings to allows people to only be max. 10min away from religious building

- Whole architecture (walls, ceilings, decorations, ornamentations) made of mudbricks and sometimes firebricks to very fragile, after rain new layers were added, so city was rebuilt constantly. to this process was shown by Tell Erbil (City of Erbil)

- Result of all the layers after layers of mud made a "Ziggurat", where the most important buildings were situated to they were huge to highlight importance of religion in Sumerian cities

Nippur 5000 B.C

- Inscription of the city in a clay cuneiform tablet with the first known depiction of a map showing streets, canals, and fields.

- At that time, it was incredibly important to map these cities in order to establish rules and norms.

U.R, 2100 B.C

- Sumerian city with a typical structures leads to but there are two ports and a cannal leads to importans of trade leads to shows the integration of trade in the urban design

- Had an oval city wall with the main functions integrated inside it, so intramural elements “intra muro”, with a river traversing everything.

- Religious and military aspects play a very important role

- Religious center on the ziggurat (with three-fall stairway and bridal chamber at the summit and temple on the very top) surrounded by housing.

- Temple compounds celebrated

Image summary: A line drawing providing an isometric architectural reconstruction of a ziggurat. The structure consists of a large, tiered rectangular platform with steep sides and a series of ascending ramps and staircases leading to a central temple atop the highest level.

Image summary: A photograph of the Great Ziggurat of Ur, showing a massive ancient Mesopotamian stepped pyramid constructed from mud bricks. The central focus is a wide, steep flight of stone stairs ascending toward a flat plateau, flanked by high, thick brick walls with vertical recesses.

religion but also king and governance of the city. Temples have administrative functions.

- New typology leads to the 2-leveled courtyard house, made of mudbricks and thick, 2 meters high walls. No windows, only opening to the courtyard leads to a new view on privacy

- mudbrick (dried in the sun) very fragile, after rain new layers were added, so city was rebuilt constantly. to thickness helped with climate and sometimes they would make 5 bricks in a layer

- There code was: Equity in land & Theft/crime wasn't allowed

- Sophisticated ways of constructing with bricks are created in Sumerian Cities such as:

• True arch

- Barrel vault

- Groin vault

• Corbelled arch

• Pitched brick vault

- Houses had lavatory, kitchen, chapel, and guestrooms. Vestibule were the only connection to the street.

- Clear street patterns and rounded corners for pedestrian flow. Streets had to be 3m wide.

The Invention of New Building Techniques

Through the experimentation of Sumerian civilizations, more sophisticated ways of buildings were invented:

• Arches

• Truce arches

• Barrel vault

• Going vault

• Corbel arches

On a technical level, this enabled the differentiation between collective and everyday buildings by giving them a specific architecture.

Internal Control and External Domination

In the Sumerian cities a power culture can be found. They had a religious leader, the Lugal and a religious leader, the En. Controlling the enemies coming from the outside was very important. Through the plans of the cities, it is evident how controlled these cities were, namely, through the:

1. Complexes in the center of the cities

2. Defensive mechanisms, defensive walls with water around them

The Cities of the Indus Valley civilization

Hydraulic civilizations and cultures were emerging as water was very benign and a vital resource for people living in the cities. However, it was also malign, as it could create floods, etcetera These civilizations were very different from the Sumerian civilizations, here water as a resource is very important and religion is less central compared to the Sumerian Cities. So, you had an civic center not a religious one.

Mohenjo-Daro 2600 B.C

- 20 to 30,000 people living there near to a river implies defined by topography

- 2 mounds, higher Daro and lower Daro

- Almost gridded street pattern (contrary to Ur Settlements)

- Intricate and dense urban fabric

- Private and public buildings made of rather big fire bricks (were backed bricks) to more solid and could survive rain, as they contained water.

- Often 2-story courtyard houses, similar to Ur Settlements but without openings to the street. Servants lived in the lower part and masters on top, where living and sleeping rooms were.

- Precise regulations of privacy in courtyards through cross-like windows.

- Hierarchy of streets leads to main street had stores and administrative services and exchange places and secondary streets had simple houses. leads to function and wideness is different

- Fresh water system in all houses with water storage possibility (wells), unlike other civilizations that had to travel to get water to system of wells connected to a sanitary platform where one could wash oneself. platform had extension across the streets in form of a sewage system underneath. to irrigation

water was dealt with in a sufficicated way

- Upper Town had orthogonal alignments and broad streets with main public buildings and in the outer parts granaries, where grain was saved and administered for the collective.

- People met at the Great Bath, which was a bath complexes leads to center of public moment, activities, politics were also discussed leads to hydraulic civilization.

The Idea of the Polis: Rome, Greece and Beyond

Greek Aegean cities or city states emerged out of architectural development, so development of settlements, already in the Bronze Age. They were mainly autocratic settlements. In the Mycenaean Period, there were many settlements and most of them didn't become big cities except for Athens.

The colonial empires of Greece and Rome were essential to propel the development of urban design:

- They initiated a fundamental exchange of ideas across regions and cultures

- They raised the issue of how to govern territories and people. to Urban design was in both cases a 'civilizing mission' that was as much about bringing a specific way of life to distant places, as about conforming people to the norms and forms of the empire.

Mysenaean period

In Greece:

- The polis or city-state expressed a specific way of life and was strongly related to the question of politics. (Trade routes as a connection about knowledge in greek world)

In the Roman Empire:

- The city was conceived as the main unit of administration as well as the prime site of contact between the ruler and ruled.

The form of the urban layout was in early times not intensively discussed by the Greeks and

Romans. When philosophers as Plato and Aristotle discuss the ideal city, their main concern were Social and political issues.

While the material and spatial characteristics of the city are taken as self-evident. It is only in Hellenistic times (336 B.C - 30 B.C) that technical literature on urban design starts to emerge. This is complemented in Roman times by more cultured discussions of authors like Pliny and Frontinus.

Image summary: A historical map of the Mediterranean region depicting various ancient civilizations, empires, and tribes. Key identified areas include the Carthaginian Empire across North Africa and parts of the Iberian Peninsula, the Persian Empire to the east, and Egypt in the northeast of Africa. Other labeled groups include the Greek colonies, Greek city-states, and Macedonia, as well as the Etruscans, Illyrian tribes, Celtiberians, Berber tribes, Garamantians, Lydia, Phoenicia, and North Arabian Semites. The map also marks the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.

An important impetus for the cities of Archaic Greece (1000 B.C) was the colonial contact with the ideas and realities of the ancient East. The idea of the Greek polis became materialized through the design of several public institutions and figures.

→ Agora is the central figure of the Greek polis.

- A figure used by greek designer for building new citys as a center (religious, political and cultural function)

- Originally no more than a large open space the urban figure of the agora would soon turn into a cluster of buildings and open spaces including the meeting place for the city council (bouleuterion), the offices for the magistrates, temples and altars, law courts and covered halls or stoa.

- Two important elements: Temple for religion // Center of Politics aka auditorium was the bouleuterion.

- Stoa as a sort of connecting element between religious and political entities in one urban formation, where the discussion could go on. Stoa richly decorated or limited, and big (looks like an arcade)

Hippodamus of Miletus, and the Classic Greek City, 5th and 4th century B.C

- is the founder of the new cities, it become important when the Greek start to colonize Asia

- Aristotle said: Pioneer of urban planning and he devised an ideal city to be Inhabited by 10'000 men (freemale citizens), while the overall population including the correspondent women, children and slaves would reach 50'000 people

- Studied the functional problems of cities and linked them to the state administration system

- Result, he divided the citizens into three classes (soldiers, artisans and 'husbandmen'), with the land also divided into three (sacred, public and private)

- A grid with topographical knowledge, where the ground gets larger so the grid is getting larger too, 3 main elements:

- o 1 grid with small signs (Here is the agora placed)

- o Second grid with bigger adaptation to the ground

- o Grids on the ground as a foundation of the slaves

- Agora (like a city centre) was the central festival, assembly, and marketplace of a city. It was thus an important social institution and a characteristic feature of the Greek polis. (As a new element bath, gymnasium and sports where there too.)

- He has received an important status thanks to Aristotle (that wrote about politics), who accredited him with the invention of orthogonal gridded urban planning. Cities like Olynthos and Priene illustrate how this so called 'gridiron plan' could be applied to a large variety of sites ( to was a newly founded city)

Miletus becomes a example of building a city like a grid

Image summary: An architectural site plan of a city layout from the middle of the 2nd century B.C. The map identifies several key structures, including a harbour at the top, a Delphinion, a Gymnasium, a Bouleuterion, and a large South Market area. A north arrow indicates the orientation of the site.

Alexander the Great left an indelible mark on every aspect of the political, social, and economic life of his time. The familiar world of the self-contained city-state was dead. Men were faced with vast new horizons, new commercial opportunities and markets, new social and religious problems, and preoccupations. Prominent among the latter was the mutual influence of Greek thought and this of the time-old cultures of the ancient East. From this emerged two important tendencies:

- A monumentalizing of existing, freely developed Greek cities (Pergamon)

- And the design of new Greek cities that were everywhere established in the freshly conquered lands of Egypt, Syria, and beyond.

The emergence of Rome as a rapidly expanding political power in the fourth century, also faced it with the question of the urban design in military colonies. In cities like Cosa the choice of the site and the layout of the walls were determined by defensive logics, but in the general urban layout a correlation between civic and military elements was established. Though Roman architects had their formulas, urban design was generally characterized by a pragmatic attitude which was paired with a large concern for civic well-being expressed by the provision of water supply and drainage, public spaces and buildings, as well as places for public entertainment. This 'civic dimension' would leave its mark on many future approaches to urban design.

The Aegean Basin, c. 700-480 B.C

- It was a spot of great cultural and social exchange

Minoan Crete, c. 2700-1100 B.C

- Important settlements from an urban design point of view and architecture, also Knossos and other settlements of the Aegean Basin

→ Both on the island

- The settlements that did not become true cities (polis) like Athens are still important like Mycenae with the lion gate

Around the Mediterranean new cities were founded.

The achievements in Mesopotamia were known and used in the development of Greek cities. Athens played an important role in the idea of the city as a polis. The city was starting to be seen not only as a material artifact, but as a political and social entity.

Image summary: A map of the Archaic Agora in Athens showing key landmarks relative to the Acropolis. The layout features the Bouleuterion and a temple situated near the Great Drain and the Street of the Panathenaea. Other marked locations include the Heliaia Law Courts, a fountain, and the Eridanos river. A scale bar at the bottom indicates a distance of 100 meters.

Image summary: A map of Athens circa 200 BC showing key structures and landmarks. The layout identifies the Acropolis area, featuring the Hephaisteion and Bouleuterion on a raised elevation to the left. Central and right elements include the Market Building, a Fountain, South Stoa, and the SE Fountain. Notable paths and landmarks include the Eridanos, the Street of the Panathenaia, and the Great Drain.

Image summary: A architectural floor plan of the Athens Agora after Hellenistic remodelling. The layout identifies key structures including the Bouleuterion, the Stoa of Zeus, the Metroon, the Tholos, the Middle Stoa, the Heliaia, the South Stoa, and the Stoa of Attalos. A scale bar at the bottom indicates a length of 100 meters.

- The entity of the agora is a very important center of Greek city planning. The figure of the agora is one of the main centers in the city. A civic center which is the core of life in the city. It's a political, economic, and cultural center, which gradually developed through time.

500BC, 200BC, 100BC

- The agora had bigger streets leading towards the Acropolis.

- It was accompanied by a Bouleuterion, a council house, which was where governors met and governed Athens. These bouleuterions had a recognizable architecture, with benches all around and an open space in the middle.

- The bouleuterion was complemented with other buildings like the Tholos and the Metroon, which was the city archive, which had to do with the governing of the city in a democratic way. This mean that there was no autocratic regime anymore but a democratic one, as governing was discussed.

- Eventually everything expanded and was combined with the Stoa, composed of continuous elements of columns that interconnected all the elements, which was a portico with a colonnade and base, where things were discussed in meeting and brought a commerce centrality to the Agora. This became an important and main element to urban design.

- Also, the Aiakeion was an important building. It was a storehouse or warehouse where the agricultural products were stored and sold, so where the actual trading was going on.

- The third centrality is the Agora as a cultural center with theaters, libraries, etcetera The agora was a central public space in ancient Greek city-states. It is the best representation of a city state response to accommodate the social and political order of the polis. Later, the agora also served as a marketplace, where merchants kept stalls or shops to sell their goods amid colonnades.

- The Odeon, which was a big theater space that used the natural topography to create the sittings, symbolizes the culture's centrality.

3 centralities are:

• Cultural center: Agora and Odeon (for theater and music to core aspects of greek)

• Political center: Bouleuterion, Tholos and Metroon

• Commercial center: Aiakeion arrow actually the Agora

→ all connected through the Stoa

• Library: Pantainos

: Image summary: A detailed architectural plan of the Athens Agora during the 2nd century A.D. The map identifies major civic and religious structures, including the Basilica, Stoa of Attalos, South Square, Temple of Ares, and the Odeion. Major thoroughfares such as Hadrian Street and the Street of the Parathenaia are marked, along with the Eridanos River flowing across the top. A scale bar in meters is provided at the bottom.

Planning Tools of the Greek Empire

The Agora and the urban grid became important tools for the planning of the Greek Empire. Olynthus

- The grid was probably drawn on the floor to get an idea on how it would look like.

- The city blocks are divided in 10 entities to the 10 entities were courtyard houses about 17x17m big. These houses were believed to be fully or partly 2-leveled.

- The blocks are placed facing South in order to get sun to very regulated and rational urbanism.

- The blocks in certain areas were divided in bigger entities with villas for the people at the top of the social hierarchy.

- The urban grid varied from city to city, also creating a diversification of house typologies.

Priene, 334 B.C

- Major religious and economic center

- Placed in a sloping ground beneath a fortifiable acropolis.

- The idea of the grid is also used however not the same system of streets and blocks as in Olynthus

- o Grid is rectangular with elongated blocks measuring around 35x47m but still mostly courtyard houses. to diversification of the grid and its use led to diversification of the blocks themselves.

- Principle civic elements and topography are embedded in the structure of the grid, yet in dynamic resistance to it

- o Ex. Agora is just out from the grid and doesn't align with the side streets

- Where the city ends, and the steep slope of the acropolis begins, there is a sanctuary dedicated to Demeter.

- Delphi leads to Sanctuary of Athena Pronaia

- Stoa leads to Hallway with columns leads to where people met and debated

: Image summary: Two architectural floor plans of houses with courtyards. The plan on the left is a narrow rectangular building featuring a central courtyard, a room labeled Oikos at the rear, and an entrance from a side street. The plan on the right is a larger structure with two courtyards and a room labeled Oikos in the upper central section.

Image summary: An isometric line drawing of an ancient building complex, likely a temple or shrine, enclosed by a perimeter wall. The complex features a central open courtyard leading to a primary gabled building with a columned porch. Adjacent to the courtyard are smaller interconnected rooms and structures built from stone blocks.

The Cities of Hellenistic Asia Minor and Syria, 323 to 31 B.C

Hippodamus formula was exported in the Hellenistic Asia Minor and Syria. Alexander the Great had a huge empire, which expanded from the Aegean Seas and well into the Asian territory. The cities that the Greeks planned in Asia were much more pragmatic.

Pergamon 281 B.C

- different from the cities known before, had a citywall for defense

- already existing city before the Greeks came, so no grid used.

- city with 2 centralities, agora on lower side and acropolis on the upper side.

- agora on the lower part with a gymnasium, sanctuary, education centrality.

- acropolis on the upper part, which very much adapted to the topography. Culutural buildings, religious builings and new entity were located there (not only religious like it was)

Asia Minor

- grid doesn't play a big role anymore. The 2 centralities are inserted and distanced themselves from the grid.

Dura-Europos

- colonial city

Image summary: A detailed architectural map of the Acropolis and surrounding areas of Pergamum, featuring various monuments, temples, and public spaces. Key locations labeled in German include the Akropolis, Athena Heiligtum, Grosser Altar, Oberer Markt, Attalische Mauer, and several gymnasia and baths including the Ostthermen and Westthermen. The map utilizes purple lines to delineate structures and brown contour lines to show the topography of the hillside.

- new, fortified city with a grid. Used model developed by the Greeks, so they built an Agora and Acropolis to create a center and they used a grid.

- entire city built of mudbricks. (close to uruk)

- courtyard typology with “Diwan” (living room) and little openings to the streets to create a very dense urban fabric. to planned in a very rigid way.

Image summary: A detailed archaeological site map of Dura-Europos, showing a grid of streets and numbered buildings. The map includes a comprehensive legend identifying various structures such as military temples, private houses, Roman baths, the Temple of Zeus Magiores, the Temple of the Gadda, and the synagogue. Key landmarks like the Main Street, Main Gate, and defensive walls are labeled, with individual buildings designated by alphanumeric codes.

- Issue of defense became important: big wall, lake, and built along the Euphrates river

The Beginning of Urbanism in the West

Gradually, Greek Cities were developed in the western part of Europe. Through this development, people started thinking about the city itself and new theories about cities were developed through thinkers like Platon, etcetera

Megara Hyblaea, 753 to 483 B.C (now Italy)

: An aerial photograph of ancient stone ruins and foundations located on a coastal peninsula. The site consists of several rectangular stone building outlines and partitioned areas interspersed with grassy fields, situated between a body of blue water on the left and a line of trees and a road on the right.

- idea of the grid was adapted and transformed to it could be folded according to the topography, becomes deformed and gets different directions. In the middle where the directions of the two grids meet, the agora was placed.

another example: Marzabotto, ca 400 B.C

In Sicily: irregular Grid --> two different ones

Town Planning in Roman Italy and its Empire

The Roman Empire was a very important and huge empire, which reached from the north of Europe, into Egypt and Africa.

- Within the Roman Empire, the question of administering/controlling of the cities at large became very important. -> City walls are important

- Public infrastructure is important -> first act, getting water out

- Cities are a part of a bigger territorial control venture

- The Forum represented centrality, where things were discussed, traded, etcetera like in the Agora. The most important forum was the Forum Romano in Rome.

Rome

- The Forum Romanum was formed thanks to a big sewage system called the Cloaca Maxima, which led water towards the Tiber, and flowed exactly under the forum to where people would come together and congregate

- Thanks to the Cloaca Maxima, the Forum Romanum came into being in the center of rome. The forum is a civic place to wasn't able to built because of the moody floor but the Cloaca Maxima helped

- Forum Romanum developed gradually among emperor augustus. It emerged along on of the main roads and was made of:

- o a few temples,

- o basilicas had a political and commercial role as well as civic and religious functions

- o and political meeting places (Comitium and Curia) like the Agora.

- Domus and Atrium (rich people) typologies for rich people. They took about 30% of the whole area of Rome. The other 70% was made up of Insulae (poor people), which were very dense urban blocks with multistoried (high) buildings for housing, as well as commercial services.

→ discussion of the living qualities in Insulae. Vitruvius had an optimistic view, observing the advances in construction technology that facilitated the construction of these dwellings.

→ Seneca was less positive about the Insulae and saw them as noisy and dirty.

- New way of city planning emerged: Novaesium, military camps with 2 axes with main functions located at their crossing point (thought they had to mark first the wall). Romans administered the territory by measuring with specific measuring tools:

- o Groma: used by mansores. Used to survey straight lines and right angles.

thence squares or rectangles.

- o Jugerum: area equivalent to 2500 square meters

- o Cardo Maximus: North – South axis

- o Decumanus Maximus: East – West axis

- Where the Cardo and Decumanos met, laid the Forum

- o Cadaster of Orange, Plan: map which served for the management of the territory and for the property rights. Really precise system of measuring

Image summary: A map of an ancient city layout enclosed by a city wall, featuring a network of streets and labeled structures including several reservoirs, a warehouse, houses, an arch, a comitium, a forum, a shrine, a prison, a coria, and a Temple of Jupiter in the citadel (ARX). Two highlighted paths cross the city: a red line running from a gate in the northwest to a gate in the southeast, and a green line running from a gate in the southwest to a gate in the northeast. A distance scale at the bottom right indicates a length of 100 meters.

- The grid (Cardo Max and Decumanus Max) did not consider the topography. Only the secondary streets behind the main axes could adapt a little to the topography, which was different from the Greek grid, which did not adapt to the topography at all.

- Brick and mortar as a form of coffering, which enabled the building of strong, quick walls will less materials. 3 techniques were used:

- o Opus Incertum

- o Opus Reticulatum

Cosa

o Opus Testaceum

- Roads were important for the urban design, as they were used to mark the territory.

Timgad 100 B.C and Other North African Cities:

- Roman small colonial town in modern day Algeria with axis and grid

- Close relation between military and urban design, as defense was very important in these colonial cities.

- Main civic functions and the main library and theory buildings were in the center, bc of defense reasons. Other functions of the city were pushed out the periphery and even out of the city walls like the baths.

Image summary: An aerial photograph of an expansive ancient city ruin, featuring a grid-like layout of stone foundations and walls. A long, straight primary road bisects the city, crossing through a prominent, intact monumental stone gateway before extending toward the horizon.

- Very regular grid with regular blocks, due to the flatness of the area and there was no necessity for variation. Blocks were divided into small insulae variating in sizes, for residential and commercial use.

- Hierarchy of urban spaces like streets play a role to Decumanus Max and Cardo Max were monumentalized with columns and gates.

Pompeii 80 B.C

- Already existing settlement to transformed to Forum and at least one basilica were added by the Romans, some administrative offices, and Comitium added next to the temples, also Macellum (marketplace)

Verona, Lucca, and Leptis Magna

- Idea of Cardo and Decumanum can still be recognized.

- Reemerging of the Roman ways of urban design

Augusta Raurica

- Completely planes as a colonial city with military principles.

- Cardo Max and Decumanum Max

- Forum at the crossing with theater related to it.

- Block structure with regular pattern like Timgad.

: Image summary: An architectural floor plan of a large rectangular complex divided into three primary sections. On the left is a courtyard containing a smaller nested rectangular structure labeled 1. The central area is a wide open space labeled 2, flanked by rows of columns. To the right is a section labeled 3, consisting of a grid of columns leading to a semi-circular tiered structure on the far right edge.

Image summary: A photograph of a narrow, ancient cobblestone street lined with ruins of brick and stone walls. In the foreground, a stone water basin with a functioning metal tap is integrated into the walkway, which features large stone stepping blocks spanning a shallow drainage channel.

Image summary: Two side-by-side aerial photographs of densely built urban areas. The left image shows a city center bounded on two sides by a winding river, while the right image shows a city enclosed by a complex, angular system of fortifications and walls.

Image summary: A black and white architectural line drawing depicting a 3D isometric view of an ancient Roman city center. The layout features a large circular theater or amphitheater as a focal point, surrounded by a grid of classical buildings with colonnades, pedimented roofs, and open courtyards.

H.S V.L 04: The Long Middle Ages and Their Counterparts: From the Towns of Tuscany to Delhi

Religious Patterns and Practices

In the middle ages religion is really important and determined how people would think and settle in areas. Important logics and patterns that unfolded had to do with religious motifs. The Roman/Greek Empire dissolved, and Europe was divided in smaller entities, kingdoms, etcetera

Already in the Roman Empire, the Catholic religion became a new religion. Later on, it would be seen as the only religion, creating monasteries and crusades, where a tribe would conquer the holy land.

Idea of cruises to concer the holy lands came up:

- 5th & 6th c.: The Vikings started expanding and conquered large parts of Europe over the sea but also over land with simple means (boats). They affected Europe and Asia Minor, as well as conquered Africa and the Middle East.

- 15th & 16th c.: Italian and English renaissancees, or rebirths of classical learning.

- 7th c.: The birth of Mohamed in Mecca formed the foundation of the Islam as well as the start of the Arabic expansion, leading to the imperial conflict between East and West. They expanded in Asia and mediterrain area (ex. Spain).

- Christian Monasticism (=Kloster): Lots of new settlements. Abbeys, monasteries, and similar structures emerged all over Europe.

These crusades triggered the development of the concept of chivalry and the knight, but also cultural encounter, exchange, and conflict. Defense became important foundation logic and castles emerged as military outposts, where people could rest and join.

Commercial Links and Urban Logics

- A lot of religious logics influencing Europe to commercial logics also started coming up: trade

During the Middle Ages, commercial trade became very important. The Hanseatic League and the Asiatic League conquered a lot of land in Europe, with cities that were connected all the way to Russia (like L.D.N, Copenhagen, Hamburg, etcetera). The Hanseatic League connected the cities through a network of shipping and trade. They propelled the necessity for new economic centers to accompany the development of a bourgeoisie, or middle class. These cities required new infrastructures that were adequate for trade and shipping by sea, as well as by land. They receives an autonomy power because they were connected through north and belgic sea. While there was economic and trade exchange, other things like, craft, ideas about how the city was and should be, as well as material were also exchanged.

Image summary: A historical map titled AUSBREITUNG DER HANSA UM DAS JAHR 1400, depicting the extent of the Hanseatic League around the year 1400 across Northern Europe, the North Sea, and the Baltic Sea. The map uses various colored regions to categorize different types of Hanseatic influence and memberships, with a detailed legend in the upper left and lower right explaining the classifications of cities and territories.

All a part of trade network, Expansion of the Hansa League around 1400

Informal Logics and Patterns?

Medieval Cities were sometimes seen as informal cities, however there are clear logics to the design and development.

- Had distinct functions and legal and administrative standing than their surrounding territory.

- Society was organized feudally to kings conquered and governed land, people got land through war.

- o Territorial lords: owners of the land. Held land in return for services, in government or war, to their king.

- o Subtenants: peasants who also had land. Held smaller units of land in return for service to their masters.

- o Adscripti glebae: “bound to the soil”, belonged to the territory and had no title of their own to kind of a slave

In towns, other laws and ways of governing were used.

• “Stadtluft macht frei” to city as a place where one could extract, free, or emancipate oneself from the feudal system.

o Charter: sort of law where legal and economic rights of the city and its citizen were determined to independent

o Council: usually elected by the people. Defined jurisdiction and was separate from and independent of the feudal jurisdiction.

• Various levels of independence

o City-states: completely independent.

o Restricted independence: partially depended on the feudal system.

• Each city was unique in plan, social structure, and function.

Palermo, 255 B.C

- Started by the Romans and then came under the Arab rule, then under the Norman rule and then under the Aragonese rule

- A good example of a medieval town

- Cardo and Decumanus of the Romans split the city with axes

- Curved lines and dense urban fabric are an Arabic element

- At least one facade of the house stands free and at least one facade is connected to another building.

- One would think it is organically grown

- Analysis of an aggregation of square cells in built environment house, the logic is:

- o Every represented with a single house

- o Characteristic of mideval century to Every house has access at least to an opening space

The Monastery and Beyond: Towards New Urban Patterns

Throughout the Medieval Ages, Christianity became more and more important. Bishops and cathedrals were emerging, as well as monasteries.

- the cathedral was replacing the roman/greek temples

- Bishop as exponent of the belief gets central building in the cities namely cathedrals

- Cathedral showed their power, not only religious also administrate and legal

- Often in the center surrounded by smaller houses and neighborhoods with craft and trade functions.

- Central place of cathedral was underlined with a very decorated architecture.

Monasteries and the Abbey were also very important and became not only a living place for religious people but also a center. Together with the cathedrals, they became important markers of the Medieval City to local community is important to was also called culture house, a place where art was cultivated

- A place of living whilst true center in cities and territories

- They fulfilled the role of nursing the sick, accommodating travelers, and helping the poor and sick

- Became important spiritual places where people came to pray but also important cultural centers.

- Taught people to read and preserve the classic books like Aristoteles but also music.

Abstraction of the floor plan → shows a logic behind this pattern

Arras, France

- Bipolar structure that results from two religious urban territories

- Left side to old roman, rigid way of planning the city with the cathedral Notre-Dame-En-Café.

Image summary: A map illustrating the layout of a fortified city divided into two main sections. The left section, labeled Cité, is less densely developed and contains a Cathedral. The right section, labeled Ville, is a densely built-up urban area featuring the Grande Place and St Vaast. Both sections are enclosed by defensive walls and are connected by a bridge.

- Right side arrow monastery (complex of buildings). Practical, religious, and cultural center.

- Both religious entities become the (double) core of the city to St. Gallen, Switzerland

- Monastery plan was clear expression on rational and precise planning to zones

- Ideal scheme on how monasteries should be, as well as how cities should be.

- Idea: not only a church but a much bigger venture.

- Functions as a little city

Very clear and religion-oriented layout organized in a particular way.

- o Church in the middle (center of all activities)

- o hospital on the north (monastery helps people idea)

- o courtyard (to take care of the dead)

- o guestrooms (for visitors)

- o school (for education)

- o bakeries and craftmanship on the east (practicle things)

- o stables for animals in the south, the productive city to functional zoning: clear separation from other structures

Figure 101 summary: A ground plan diagram of a monastery in St. Gall, Switzerland, depicting a complex layout of interconnected buildings, courtyards, and rooms. The plan features a central church or basilica with a semicircular apse, surrounded by various administrative, residential, and utility structures organized around open spaces.

The City as Expression of Defensive Logics: of Burhs, Bastides and Fortresses

Burhs were cities that emerged from the idea of defense, as people wanted to protect themselves from the Vikings. Construction in a position of defense. The Burghal Hidage were safe cities where people could go to if they were attacked. They were walled cities and within the walls, there was housing as well as agricultural areas and animal, which enabled a longer staying. They became a sort of network of over 30 cities in what we know as England today. Started by Anglo-Saxo kings, but also religious orders.

Pembroke, England 1254

- Typical burh (Defensive logic) with a very clear wall with towers and a main street.

- River surrounding it

- Heiring bone pattern to Houses to the street with a long strip of private land behind the house for farming (also to have resources when surrounded by a viking: siege). Behind the strip of land lays the wall

- Main elements:

- o parish church

- o market to widening of the main street & sometimes with a small, tall boot. À trade

- o a castle to retreat to in case the enemies reached the rown

- o commons but they are “extra muros” so they are cultivated and used only in times of peace

Aigues-Mortes, France 1254

- A bastide, town of defense (mainly built in France)

- Very common type of town

- Rich pattern and often a grid pattern. “Carra” (central piazza) at the center surrounded by urban blocks called “moulons”.

- o Around the Carra the most important buildings were arranged

- Hierarchy of roads with different widths. 15 towers around the city and a citadel.

Tughlakabad fort, Delhi 1321 to 1325

- Fortress called the Tughlakabad, built in the 14th century.

- Relatively ordered bastioned defense city

- Defense and water engineering were very important.

- In the 14th century built out of adobe, later burned bricks applied

- 6.5 m squared ordered system. Many gates and charter on the south were ruler lived.

- Main element: 12m high cone-shaped walls.

Mercantile Urban Motif in Europe

The Hanseatic League (L.D.N to Riga) was a commercial and defensive confederation of merchant guilds and market towns in Northwestern and Central Europe. Many Hanseatic cities were already there during the Roman times. A whole infrastructure was needed that had to do with the commerce, as well as an exchange and storage infrastructure. The infrastructure becomes the built city. Often in hanseatic cities, chartes in form of letters in how the city should be organized were given by religious orders.

- Transport infrastructure: goods had to be transported, some of them over very big distances, through ships, wheeled vehicles, and pack animals.

- Storage infrastructure: warehouses were needed for their storage and cranes for loading and unloading goods onto and off of boats.

- Exchange infrastructure: contracts and bills of exchange were drawn up and notaries and scriveners prepared them. The multiplicity of currencies and the varying rates of exchange among them raised problems and called for expert handling.

Copenhagen

- Stadsretten leads to The City Law

- Very important in terms of trade with planned practices.

- Founded in the 12th century, through the collaboration between a bishop and a king.

- Typical elements of Hanseatic cities:

- o Slot: extremely important fortified castle

- o Marketplace

- o Harbor infrastructure with different sectors

- o Dra docks

- o Shipyard

- o Warehouse, etcetera

- o Building materials is similar -> brick cities

- o Stone and wood foundations

- o Traded material: backed clay bricks

- o Brick warehouse

In the Hanseatic Cities a lot of goods were shipped and traded, like building materials, especially brick buildings. That is why the same materials and ways of building can be recognized in different cities. The majority of the churches were also built from these freely handed materials.

The Emergence of New Urban Institutions

The emergence of new urban institutions had a big effect on what the city is.

Amsterdam

- A lot of trade and particularly religious orders that would start religious institutions, whose job was to take care of the sick and poor.

- Religious institutions were big, freely accessible complexes, from which collective spaces emerged (out of orphanages, hospitals, etcetera).

- Ex. Orphanage as a important institution providing a civic service for the city

- Collective spaces were sometimes very present and sometimes you had to know where they were. They were for free use for citizens to suddenly we see these big institutions that are added to the city. Sometimes they were very representing for the city and sometimes they were kind of hidden.

- Introduction of real hospitals with church typology.

- First universities emerged in the Middle Ages, sometimes through religious inspiration. They become big complexes of built and open spaces in the city and are important institutions.

Oxford

- Colleges built consisted of

- o Teaching

- o Meeting buildings

- o Living spaces

- o Collective spaces/courtyard à Intricate and complex network of enclosed green spaces.

- o Generating urban spaces à becomes a system when all collegues do that

- Also built outside of city walls and made out of limestone.

- Built gradually and shared a combination of open and closed spaces

City gradually emerged through the creation of these new buildings.

The Everyday Urban Fabric

Houses were built as precarious constructions. Due to the many fires during Medieval Ages, and the houses being built of wood except for their foundation out of stone, large parts of the cities were erased. Cities started making the parting walls out of stone and later on, more parts of the houses were made out of brick.

Image summary: A technical line drawing illustrating three variations of a building frame structure. Each frame consists of vertical posts, horizontal beams at different heights, and a triangular gabled roof. The frames differ in the placement and presence of internal horizontal supports and the configuration of the roof rafters.

timber-framed house with brick side walls

The City-State

Cities in Medieval Ages were only partially independent. Cities became very independent entities called City-States, which were completely self-governing and emancipated from the feudal system.

Some Tuscan Cities like Siena and Firenze

- Celebration of self-governing

- Good living and trading qualities

- Good culture and locally produced products.

- Governance and the power of the public and the gains were important (yet not to be mistaken with democracy).

Siena

- Important topography to built on top of 2 higher hills, originally surrounded by 7 kilometers of walls containing 15k habitants in the Middle Ages.

- Originates from the merging of settlements/perishes with own church, well, tower, etcetera, due to defensive and trade reasons.

- Became independent and started to govern itself

- New public square leads to piazza del campo with Palazzo Publico (Government city)

Image summary: A high-contrast black and white architectural site plan or urban map showing a dense cluster of irregular building footprints and narrow walkways surrounding a central, fan-shaped open plaza.

- o Before they were 17 churches (Contradas) that become one for defensive reasons to SIENA

Important expressions of the collaborations:

- Palazzo Publico showed new public governance.

- Shell-shaped main square defined by its shape and facades and paved by bricks with 9-section pattern, representing the 9 settlements in Siena.

- Fountain gaia as a celebration of this collaboration

- Main square used for public events and “Pallio” the horse races, which was the reminder of the collaboration of the rural communities to construct a new city.

Florence

- New ruling class emerged, which steered the city themselves.

- o Built upon Roman existing planning

- o Created new walls for defense, and cardo and decumanus in the middle.

- Medieval City becomes an extension of the Roman City to It was a transformation and development of the Roman plan and house typologies.

- Densification of the already-there Roman City, through the replacement of insulae (multilevel) with Casa Torre (tower houses)

Zähringer Cities

These cities were started by the Zähringer Dynasty of Noble People and built from the north of C.H to the south of G.E. Most of these cities were built with materials of local quarries. Shared characteristics, due to a set of driving logics; defense, religion, and commerce.

Bern

- Built with same set of principles, single houses, and allotments.

- Walled cities with castle outside of the walls, “extra muros”.

- Oval shaped urban plan with main street in the middle called Marktgasse.

- No real central space but continuous single square.

- Hearing bone pattern like in Pembroke

Image summary: A black and white historical urban map showing a densely packed neighborhood situated along the winding Aare river. The map details a series of narrow parcels and buildings organized around central streets labeled Marit Gasse, Kromgasse, and Gerechtigkeitsgosse.

- Blocks were horizontally extended between the 12th and 18th century. to elongated parcels allowed for extension and ground floors were free for commerce.

H.S V.L 05: Between Ideal and Laboratory: Of European Renaissance

Principles and Laws of the Indies

During the Renaissance Period, there were still fluent borders with fights between the World Powers, due to territory and the emergence of the idea of colonialism. Little “countries” like Portugal started conquering big parts all over the world. Related to colonialization, there were so-called missions to bring Catholicism to newly colonized places, so “conquering souls”. Also, the trade of goods and minerals were heavily linked to colonialization.

Period of explorations and colonializations (14 to 16 century) leads to like columbus - Monarchy: France, Spain, etcetera

- City states: Florence, Venice, Sienna etcetera

Affects on Urban design and settlements

- Battles between monarchies

- Exploration leads to colonization

Image summary: A historical world map illustrating global trade routes and territorial control. Red lines designate the silver flow, while blue lines indicate general trade routes connecting Europe, Africa, the Americas, and Asia. Shaded regions identify colonial territories: Spanish territory in red, Portuguese in gold, English in light green, French in pink, and Dutch in blue, with light blue denoting Anglo-French contested areas. The map also marks specific battle sites and colonial boundaries, such as the Line of Tordesillas.

- Religious orders going onto missions (Catholic) to spread the believes in regions like south america

- Trading routes (africa/asia/india back to europe)

Humanist Italy: Of Public Works and Private Places

- The notion of Renaissance emerged in relation to the idea of rebirth or “Rinascimento” of the great classical age, introduced by Vasari in the 16th century.

- Origin: 14th century in Italy, where it flowered and spread during the subsequent 2 centuries (France and Italy)

- All kinds of important achievements of the classical period of thinkers, writer, painter and architects are rediscovered like Vitruvius, as well as archeology discoveries, which many of it was kept in Constantinople.

- New Idea about the State emerging

- Also, a new wave of thinkers emerged like Machiavelli, who thought about democracy. A theory of the new secular state power and the autonomous state emerged to state doesn't belong to monarch or a religious leader to civic servant and politics of reason

- Book printing press was invented (done in the midevil monestary)

- goo-ten-berg invented the press 1450, most printed book was the bible

• Allowed knowledge to spread easily and quickly

- Ideas could be reposed on a bigger scale (before you had to write it again)

This way, also religious ideas and architecture and urban ideas were spread with the goal of reaching a bigger audience.

The Renaissance City was made of the following ideas:

1. Specific Urban Design Principles

2. A new Scale of Development (Carriage)

3. A Centralized Unit, Symbol of the Invisible State

4. new Urban Type

1. Specific Urban Design Principles

- to A centralized unit with clear plans to Arch. & U.D think city can be controlled

- to Symbol of the invisible state to tight ideas of city and state to “democracy”

- to A new scale of development to larger cities designed for traffic (carriages)

- to Formal planning and design principles

These ideas spread first in Italy and from there to France (16th c.), Britain (17th c.), America (late 17th c. and 18th c.), and to European colonies in the Americas, Africa, India, the Far East, and Australia

Pienza

- Piazzo Pio 2 was small square next to little duomo to grew from already existing buildings and emerged from already medieval fabric.

- Attempt of introducing a clearly geometrical defined place in a highly irregular urban space.

- 3 main principles of Renaissance urban design:

1. Spatial unity

• Square should feel like one unit

- Like one spacial unit

Image summary: A high-angle, top-down photograph of a European-style urban plaza. The square is paved with reddish-brown stones and is bordered by multi-story buildings with orange-tiled roofs. At the top of the frame, a large white neoclassical building with a triangular pediment faces the square. A small group of people is gathered at the bottom edge of the plaza where it meets a dark asphalt street.

- Here: he is changing the facades of the buildings and adding a grid on the square, so it gets a unity

2. Limitation of space and clear

• Space is not open, so ist limited, a clear definition

- Here: is adding some building, so it gets a clear spacial form

3. Measured order and grids

• A clear order

• In renaissance usually it is a geometrical form

- Here: measured square, grid is same

- Particular pattern was made, introducing order related to the order of the church

- introduction on the ground but also by giving a new facade with logic and certain rhythm/coherence to the surrounding buildings

- Ex. Palazzos on the right and left of the church with both having a structured, rhythmic facade

Greenwich London, Late 17th Century

Image summary: A photograph of the facade of a stone cathedral featuring a triangular pediment, a central rose window, and three wooden entrance doors. A tall bell tower rises behind the left side of the structure, and it is flanked by multi-story stone buildings on either side of a paved plaza.

Royal Naval College is a bigger urban ensemble where principles of order and limitation are introduced.

- Similar 3 principles like in Italy

• Clear unity

- Clear order

- Clear definition

- Has clear geometry and open spaces.

- Around the buildings there is a clear, controlled order represented by the colonnades.

- Mirroring the houses (queen and King house)

- Emphasizing the big houses

- Rectangular spaces

Image summary: A wide-angle photograph of the Old Royal Naval College in Greenwich, London, viewed from across a body of water. The neoclassical complex features two symmetrical wings with grand porticos and colonnades, anchored by two identical domed towers that frame a central open courtyard leading toward a distant green hill.

2. A New Scale of Development (Carriage)

Verona

- Very clear architecture and orders. Uniform style.

- New public spaces

• New wider streets leads to new traffic happened

• New architecture along those new public places called palazzos

- Long axes for transport introduced. Designed by Michele Sanmicheli.

- Straight street for bigger cargages to creating those big straight public spaces in the city

- Also, palazzos with very precise order, 3-part composition, and always characterized by a strong rhythm also designed by Sanmicheli.

- Due of the strong rhythm in these cities linear perspective became important

- Ideas of measured orders

• How to represent architecture and urban spaces

- Inventor: Brunelleschi, he understood the convergence of lines when looking at the horizon in this linear perspective. This started influencing the architecture.

- Idea of perspective of Serlio

• How to represent urban spaces to stage design

- Serlio introduced the scena comica, scena satrica, and scena tragica, which played with the perspectives to became part of scenic design

Florence

- Families like the Medici Family developing/leading the space in Florence

- The Medici Family as the leadership with important architect like brunelleschi, who commissioned bigger religious public and private buildings.

Palazzos (became important as a main component of Renaissance Cities)  represents the state

Public works

Cathedrale

○ Baptistery

○ Duomo

o Ponte Vecchio

○ New construction technics

• Making new seats for civic organized state implies palazzo Vecchio, Ufizzi etcetera

- Palazzo Vecchio was extended in several stages through time and was an attempt to express the city power

- Palazzo an other sort of public space to Public sphere for woman exchanging knowledge

- also the Uffizi (prominent art museum) beside the Palazzo, which was a building for civic servants and administration with a tripartite facade to introduction of new architectural order with facades with 4-part division and strict order characterized by a measured order named by Vitruvius for example.

- Ponte Vecchio was also built.

- Introduction of public interventions, as well as bigger Palazzos like the Palazzo Medici

- Palazzos' characteristics:

- Cubic form with a rusticated outlook on the bottom and hierarchy of orders

• Close to the street

- At bottom very ruff and the higher it goes the smoother it gets

• Relatively large. Up to 100m

- Roman Domus as main typological reference, due to the impluvium opened to the sky in the middle of

Image summary: A photograph of a large, multi-story stone building featuring classical architecture with rusticated masonry on the lower levels and arched windows throughout.

Image summary: An architectural floor plan of a building featuring a central square courtyard surrounded by a series of rectangular rooms of varying sizes. The plan includes internal walls, doorways, two sets of stairs, and a spiral staircase on the right side. A scale bar at the bottom right indicates measurements up to 30 meters.

Image summary: A black and white architectural line drawing of a multi-story building facade with varied structural elements. The building features several distinct sections, including arched entrances and windows on the ground floor, an ornate middle section with three arched windows and decorative reliefs, and a top story with rectangular windows. A smaller, single-story wing with three arched openings extends to the right. Scales are provided at the bottom of the drawing.

- the buildings, as well as enfilades like the roman house and windows with the Corinthian Order.

- >→ less than / interior was also recalling the past and related to antiquity

- Slightly forward-tilted walls to correct the perspective, so it would look like a perfect cube.

- Idea of grandeur on one hand and on the other hand, the interior, which were public domains where things were organized for women, was a world of references to antiquity.

• Columns of classical period

- Statues

• Decorations

- Palazzo Strozzi

rightarrow some of the same principles return

• Rusticated base with the entrance

• Third floor

- On the top more sophisticated by detail leads to windows, cornices

- Big courtyard in the middle

- sometimes very elaborated with for example a piazza.

- Typologies of the Palazzo remerged! leads to New sort of character for the city leads to because a lot of palazzos where built

- The figure of the palazzo can also be found in Rome, but more delicate and elegant

- Palazzo Farnese to rich interior which influences the thinking and exchange of ideas of females

→ so, in Italy, the urbanism is very much related to patronage and the new idea of the state

Figure 40 summary: This composite image displays the Palazzo Strozzi in Florence, built in 1489, through a combination of a photograph, architectural line drawings, and a close-up detail. The leftmost photograph shows the building's massive, three-story rusticated stone facade. The central section provides technical illustrations including an elevation, a floor plan, a cross-section, and details of an angle lantern, a link holder, the crowning cornice, and a first-floor window. The rightmost image offers a high-resolution view of the exterior wall, highlighting the rough-hewn, stacked stone masonry and iron rings mounted on the facade.

The Fortified City: The Norms and Forms of Warfare

Defense became increasingly important during the Renaissance, due to the invention of the canon and gunpowder.

Canons were responsible for the fall of the great city of Constantinople, in 1453, marking the beginning of a new age in the history of military fortifications. In the Renaissance period the fortified city would be brought to a new level of sophistication. Defense in the form of bastions start to emerge. Goal is to enlarge distance between enemy and interior city.

The Seigneur of Vauban created a system: bastioned walls made of a nested fortifications.

The Vauban Bastions also emerged, which had different levels of bastions. These bastions were sometimes combined with water called molds. The different bastions were then connected through bridges. The bastions were sometimes made of dikes (elevated ground to form a barrier).

Also bastioned fortresses emerged. They were pentagonal shaped to flank the enemy. During the Renaissance, all the money was used for these fortifications, thus leaving no money to extend the city, leading to a densification in the inner of the fortresses.

- Cities had no possibility for growth to expanded outside of the wall taking the risk of having no protection

Lille

- Plan of Citadel 1710 was very intricate, connected with bridges and tunnels

- During the renaissance, there were forced “intra muros” densification due to the city's ability to only expand inwards, because of the surrounding fortified walls

Image summary: A historical map illustrating the star-shaped fortifications of the Citadel of Lille. The layout shows a complex system of nested geometric walls, bastions, and moats designed for defense, with the central area labeled Castelle ou Lille.

The Ideal City: Of Social Reforms and Works of Art

The Renaissance Period was also a period of thinking. Thinking about cities and how they could work. The notion of cities and states became quite interchangeable. Publications by writer, religious people or architects started to emerge:

- Thomas Moore, Utopia implies wrote about importance od elderly people's homes and hospitals

- Tommaso Campanella, Civitas Solis to wrote about the religious approach where people could engage and take care of others

- Johann Valentin Andrae, Christianopolis to wrote about the idea of equality, where everyone would live in the same sort of houses, thus making everything and everyone equal. Also, a defensive aspect with molds that would contain fish, which would feed the people.

- Luciano Laurana to painted depictions of ideal Renaissance Cities with a clear order and center. Important were the perspective, elements of antiquity, and symmetry and memorial buildings. to religion is the core of a city!

Image summary: A wide-perspective architectural painting of a city square featuring a centrally positioned rotunda with a domed roof and a colonnaded porch. The rotunda is flanked by multi-story classical buildings with rows of windows and arched walkways on the ground floor, all set against a clear blue sky.

- Leon Battista Alberti, De re aedificatoria (treatise) to the house should be a little city. All the qualities of the city should be found in private buildings, namely health, tranquility and so on. Relates architecture to a comprehensive conception of the city:

- An ideal town in which the individual buildings are subordinate to/overpower the whole and enhance the social, political, and practical life of the citizens.

- A round or circular plan to the most spacious, surrounded by stellar fortifications, and safest protection.

- A large enough urban plan to allow for expansion.

- Good sitting, efficient water supply and careful regard for health conditions.

- Streets were to be laid out “in the manner of rivers”, so following an undulating pattern

- Several piazzas, which set the proportions for squares and the heights of the surrounding buildings.

- Moderation in size and decorations, as flaunting might disturb neighborly relations.

- Antonio di Petro Averlino (Filarete), treatise with dialogue and illustration to started designing the ideal city in Milano.

- Idea was that city would be located in different locations and could be duplicated.

- First plan was called sforzinda  made for the pope

- Plan composed 2 tilted squares situated in the circle

- Circle was again for a defence

○ Had defensive points (guard towers)

○ Included public housing like schools

- Hierarchy of square leads to city with main center and subcenters

- Vitruvius, de re architectura libri decem

- Ideal city to Locating the grades in between the main winds (thinking about climate), but he also speaks about materiality and typologies of buildings and how to get water to the city.

- Thinking about

○ Climate

○ What types of housing

○ Material

○ The way how water comes in the system

- Different centers were important. Portis led to these centers.

- Leonardo Da Vinci, an artist

- 1484 Milano was hit by a plague which caused a lot of death

- The ruler of Milan wanted him to think how an ideal city would look like

- he designed 10 towns for Milan, however never realized (stayed utopian cities)

- Towns were built on different levels, including underground, so the air would be good, as consequence of the plague to innovative. (Never realized)

- Vincenzo Scamozzi leads to L'idea della Architecture Universale, 1615 leads to can be realised in many places leads to brought the knowledge of palazzos and the new cities in a single treatise.

- Was proposing a forfeited starshaped city with a grides structure in the middle.

- combing forfeited city with grided structure and open public spaces

- o Hierarchy of public spaces, main public space in the middle and multible small ones spread out.

Image summary: An architectural plan of a fortified city, depicted as a star-shaped fortress with a surrounding moat. The city's interior is laid out in a concentric circle pattern with radial streets extending from a central focal point to the outer walls. The perimeter is defined by a series of pointed bastions, common in early modern military engineering, with two circular insignias located in the upper corners and descriptive text panels at the bottom.

- From there they could reach really quickly the bastions on the outside of the city

- Palmanova in Sizilien was build by Scamozzi's ideal

• Secondary public spaces for everyday use

○ Markets

- Events could take place

• Combining idea of defense (military system) and city for everyday use

- Designed real cities in the east of Venice like Palmanova, which was polygon-shaped with 9 bastions with their respective main streets going to the main, hexagonal center. Also has secondary squares to sophisticated and controlled proposal for a larger city.

Granmichele by Michele la feral, 1690, Another Ideal model

- Other cities were built according to the previous principles like Grammichele, which was hexagon-formed with a hexagonal center and a hexagonal pattern of the streets.

• with radial streets

- very carefully defined block

- Main square for defense

- Second square for everyday use

Architects also became very specific with what an ideal city would look like.

Laws of the Indies: The Quest for New Urban Territories

Cities started in Italy also found their way across the world, due to colonization. Philipp 2 of Spain established a set of rules on how to build cities called the Laws of the Indies.

Signed in 1573

- Set of law/regulations that should be followed whenever starting a city outside the spanish border to but belonging to the spanisch colonial empire

Location must be healthy with means of fortification, fertile soil, land for farming and usage

• All buildings should be one type  makes town prettier

• Commons should be delimited implies large enough in case of rapid pop. growth

- 148 rules to aid colonists in locating, building, and populating settlements

- A guide to build three tips of towns beyond spanish space (built by slaves)

• Military town

- Mission town (religion)

• Pueblos leads to civilian town

- Heavily influenced by Vitruvius' Ten Books of Architecture and Leon Battista Alberti's treatises.

- One of main laws was that cities had to be built in a grid pattern with a main square containing the main buildings.

- How big should a square be? Only as big as a bullet could go

Buenos Aires

- Grid city with a main plazza (plaza mayor)

- Plaza mayor situated in

- the middle of the grid

• or close to the water if it has one

- Plaza Mayor = Geometrical square

• Space where the main church was

- Important for trade

- good for military

- Out of nothing, grid orientated in the winds (following Vitruvius' ideas) with a center containing a church, place of colonial government, hospitals, elderly houses, etcetera these buildings could also be on the main axes.

- Old colonial city could still be recognized the 19th century to grid was kept, and the city was expanded following this grid.

On the one hand we saw colonial cities made for trade and on the other hand we saw these religious missions to convert people to the catholic religion.

Uruguay

- Little settlements or towns made by religious people for converting purposes (missions)

- Particular principles were followed for these missions called reduccione (reduction settlements) to ordered settlements according to very clear geometric pattern with a center related to religion, which makes the core of the settlement/reduccione

- Always had a vegetable garden called the hortus, where one could maintain and produce vegetable for the people. In Portuguese colonies other models were emerging than on Spanish colonies

- Cities as exmaples: Candelária, Argentina (in Paraguay)

Image summary: A black and white architectural floor plan or layout diagram showing a symmetrical arrangement of small rectangular units. The top half consists of several horizontal rows of short, identical rectangles, while the bottom half features larger rectangular enclosures, some containing labels like 13, 14, and 15, alongside vertical rows of narrow rectangles flanking a central open area.

Candelária, Principle of a reduccione

Salvador, Brazil

- Main city with a completely different logic than Spanish cities

- No street grid and no main square, rather a sinuous system with many curves and turns

Image summary: An antique map and panoramic sketch titled PLAN DE LA VILLE DE S. SALVADOR, Capitule du Brésil. The image features a detailed plan of the city of Salvador, Brazil, depicting its coastal fortifications, urban layout, and a harbor with sailing ships. Two comprehensive keys, labeled Renvoy and another list, identify numerous landmarks including churches, forts, the palace, and various batteries. A scale of 100 varas is provided at the bottom left.

- No strict planning but rather a 2-part model with an upper and a lower city following/mirroring the system of Lisbon

- Lower city had the commerce and trading and boats

- Higher city had the main public functions and churches

Luanda, Angola

- Portuguese colony with same sort of logics

- Lower city: ships and trading

- Higher city: main buildings and churches

H.S V.L 06: Of Absolutism and Enlightenment: The Norms and Forms of the Baroque City – Baroque, Defense and Colonization

Religion (protestand reformation)

- Baroque architecture flourished in Europe from the early 17th c. until the mid 18th c.

- The religion during this time was first and foremost characterized by The Reformation. to The Reformation was a schism (split or division) in the catholic church, where on the one hand we had Catholics and on the other we had protestants, who were reformers that tried to rethink what the catholic beliefs might mean.

- Religious divisions in Europe

• roman catholic

• protestants

- eastern orthodox

• muslim

- bullet anabaptist

- Luther announced 95 theses where he redefined and reformed this belief system. Huldrych Zwingli, Luther's follower, was also rethinking what the belief system was about.

- This Reformation religion started “intruding” from the north, becoming a very important and dominant religion. The catholic church reacted to this in a counter-reformation:

• 30 years wars in European territory

• Representations of Catholicism like art found in churches were taken out and out of the city to builder's storm

- Bildersturm Zürich 1523 arrow Religious symbols taken out of the city (western Christianity)

Colonial empires

- People interested in trade or religious or territorial motifs

- Colonialization started taking place in the 17th and 18th century.

- Colonial empires were becoming very important and strong power in the world

Image summary: A world map from 1660 showing the colonial territories of eight nations. The United Kingdom, France, Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, Courland, Russia, and Turkey each have specific regions highlighted in different colors across Europe, the Americas, Africa, and Asia.

- 1660 Colonial Empires; Spanish, Portuguese, French, British and Dutch empires

- At the center of these empires were religion, power and the baroque expression.

- Non-religious leader like the pope (but of course each power had their believes)

Definition of Baroque (Barocco):

- queer, absurd, originally a derogatory term; as degenerate form of Renaissance.

- originally associated with religious fervour calculated to appeal to the observer's emotions, tarted in Rome, in 16th century: focus of the Catholic World.

The Baroque period is most often associated with a highly ornate and often extravagant style of architecture, art and music that flourished in Europe from the early 17th until the mid-18th century. In this era religion played a very important role. From the mid 16th century onward, a schism was initiated in Western Christianity by Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin and other Protestant reformers. This provoked a Bildersturm, in which Catholic art in churches and public spaces was destroyed by mass actions of Protestants in cities like Zurich (1523),, Münster (1534) and Geneva (1535). The Protestant Reformation would soon provoke Counter-Reformation, initiated to preserve the power, influence and material wealth of the Catholic Church. Religious wars were numerous and culminated in the Thirty Years War.

, which not only killed large parts of the population of a country like Germany but also initiated migratory moves across Europe.

Following the explorations of the 16th century by powers like Spain and Portugal, colonial empires would be firmly conquered and established during the 17th century. The new territories gave Europe access to many new resources: land, precious metals and new products such as coffee and tobacco. It was not until the late 17th century that commercial and industrial profits from trade with Asia and the Americas became visible. By this time the benefits resulting from over-seas trade and investment had become more widely diffused across Europe, accruing principally to the Dutch Republic, followed closely by England and, later, France. As the world economy expanded the Americas, Europe and the Far East became inextricably linked through trade. The countries that gained most from this economic expansion were nation-states such as France and England, which developed a strong central government alongside mercantilist policies.

Against this background, baroque urban design would become a matter that belonged almost exclusively to the power elites. Popes, nobility, kings and politicians commissioned new urban interventions to celebrate their wealth and power. Baroque urbanism equals of-ten the ,grand gesture; it introduces a previously un-known grandeur and scale into the midst of the urban fabric.

Urban design also becomes a matter of the theatrical; ruling powers use the urban stage to show themselves off, while architects mirror the 'grandeur' of their patrons. Characteristics for Baroque urban design is that the Renaissance approach Ideal Cities are left in favour of a more architectural and small-scale approach of urban design. The design of the city is conceived through architectural projects that shape the urban environment.

In the 17th century Baroque urban design extends its outreach beyond the city borders, illustrating the omnipresence of the political power in the entire territory. Urban spaces, buildings, gardens, squares are no longer autonomous and juxtaposed precincts but are sub-ordinated to dominant systems of axes cutting across the urban territory and linking the various urban elements. New urban figures such as the Royal Squares, the boulevard and the ordonnances would emerge in the city as a result of this absolutist approach to the urban fabric. With the foundation of cities like St. Petersburg there is a rediscovery of urban totality, but this is not created by means of a rational plan but rather by way of the perspective and movement axes.

Baroque urban design would also raise interest in the 'new world' where new settlement forms had to be invented. Time and time again, there was a large reliance on architecture to structure and shape the city. As the urban design for Washington exemplifies, there was a strong conviction that buildings were first made and moulded by the world around them and subsequently would begin to act on their surroundings.

This action and reaction place individual buildings into a creative relationship with the Baroque city as a whole

Architecture as Project for the City: Complementing and Perfecting Urban Space

Baroque was originally a derogatory term, meaning something that is not fully pure. It was seen as a degenerated form of the Renaissance. It started in Rome in the 16th c. with a focus of the Catholic World and was originally associated with religious fervor (intense feeling) calculated to appeal to the observer's emotions.

The baroque urban design

- A design of nobility, so exclusive to powerful, religious, and political classes, so the power elite (exclusive to the power elites: Popes, Jesuits, Nobility, Kings, Princes. Louis 14)

- Something new, a “Grand Gesture”, grandeur and a previously unknown scale are introduced

- urban is "a stage' used by ruling powers to show themselves off. Architects and planners mirror the "grandeur" of patrons

- New definition of “urban project” emerges as an architectural artefact that interacts with its surroundings

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (Rome)

- Part of urban ensemble. Not a single building but stands at a crossroad with 3 other fountains. More of a chapel than a real church, but the facade is impressive because of:

- combination of convex and concave form, which introduces something new to the arch of the city

- geometrical control is very prominent

: A photograph of the facade of a grand Baroque-style stone church located on a city street corner. The building features an elaborate exterior with classical columns, sculpted figures in niches, and a prominent ornamental pediment topped by a bell tower. A rounded alcove containing a large sculpture is integrated into the side wall facing the street. The building is flanked by multi-story city apartments, with a crosswalk and a few pedestrians visible on the street below.

- Way to create a special project in the city, as the project influences a big part of Rome.

- Cornice divides building into two parts: upper and lower

- Baroque: cornice as a grand gesture of importance of religion

Sant 'Agnese in Agone

- Francesco Borromini

- Build up in a precise form and principle in the renaissance

- Church is entering the konvex spaces

Image summary: A photograph of a large, white Baroque-style church featuring a central dome flanked by two symmetrical bell towers. The building faces a paved public square where numerous people are walking or sitting on benches under a clear blue sky.

- City becomes central through the introduction of the church. Marking the center for the Piazza Navona to obelisk marks it even more (introduces elements in the public space)

- Very convex and concave

Piazza Del Campidoglio

- Redesigned on old roman remains from Michelangelo by pope the third

- It was a sight with buildings, facing another palazzo die conservatori an uneven landscape. A new axis.

- He redesigned the building Palazzo Senatori changing the tower symmetrically. He also redesigned the Pallazzo die Conservatori and created Palazzo Nuovo on the other side which is mirroring the Pallazzo die Conservatori with the same principle

: Image summary: An architectural site plan and map titled "VUE GENERALE DE LA PLACE ET DES EDIFICES DU CAPITOLE," depicting the layout of the Capitoline Hill in Rome. The plan shows the oval-shaped Piazza del Campidoglio centrally located and surrounded by the Palazzo dei Conservatori and the Palazzo Nuovo. To the left is the church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli and its leading staircase, the Cordonata, which descends from the square toward the lower town.

- Michelangelo shows how a single intervention can change the space around the axis and reorganizes the whole city.

• Changes an unordered medieval space into a symmetrical, on an axe organized urban space

Introducing a particular architecture with a base and cornicing and repeating parapets.

• Changing the facade to create a rhythm and a controlled space.

o New monumental staircase leading to the new square.

Specific pavement with elliptical form, which radiates out to the corners of the main buildings to also binds all of these elements

o Statue as a central visual point leads to Statue of Marcus Aurelius leads to not typical that a statue is free in the middle of the space leads to is now a part of the experience also of the axiality

○ Enclosing space

○ Idea of scale and symmetry

○ Making it a grand space  Grand Gesture

The Territorial City: Expanding the Urban Confines

The Baroque of the 17th century

- Has open systems with axes, which dominate both the city and countryside to no longer centralized, closed, limited scale and sized structures of the Renaissance

- Focus on territorial networks to forces of urbanism extend beyond city borders, implying the permanent presence of a political power (i.e. the king)

- Urban spaces, buildings, gardens, and squares are no longer autonomous, but rather subordinated to a dominant system of axes cutting across

- Squares become nodal points and focal points and streets become major territorial axes

Pope Sixtus 5

- Idea: rome the City of Pilgers – the city of God/religion

- In his name churches and other important buildings were build

- Every church had an obelisk that was an visual connecting point

• Bigger Plazzas were build

- Sixtus V wanted to introduce a territorial network where pilgrims could visit the most important churches in one day. Topography was not as important as the idea of binding these 7 main churches being connected by a network of axes.

Image summary: A black and white engraving featuring a central portrait of Pope Sixtus V, identified by the Latin text SIXTVS V PAPA MONTEALTI, surrounded by smaller architectural illustrations. These illustrations depict various buildings, obelisks, and urban vistas, showcasing the Pope's contributions to the urban development and monuments of Rome.

The City as Symbol of Absolutism: Of Squares, Boulevards and Ordonnances

“Ideological System” of the Baroque City leads to direct representation of the dominant ideology

- Absolute power of political, military and religious leaders will be represented in the city

- Centralization of political power to power often symbolized by a statue

- Continuity and extension

Henry 4, King of France

- had a big impact in Paris during his ruling, due to the competition between France and Spain.

- He started cutting the blocks at the edges to create a very regular and geometrical facade.

- Squares became important, as they were a form of dominating the city. They were perfect forms that cut into the urban fabric, often with an important monument in the middle like an obelisk, etcetera An example would be the Palace Royal, where military parades would take place. This developed into a green space. They were cut into the urban fabric ignoring whatever stood there before to buildings were demolished for the squares

- These spaces weren't publicly accessible at the beginning and only the closest to the king could go.

- Squares were desin in a very strcit rhythm that was repetitive. Following a particularly building code

- These squares were also seen in Spain (Plaza Mayor, Madrid). This shows how monarchs exercised their power through these squares, as well as big avenues or boulevards.

- Place Dauphine leads to geometrical shape but triangular leads to but architecture is slightly less following the ordances like the place royal

- Forested boulevards also emerged as very innovative places of representation where the noble classes could represent themselves to the city by driving there with their carriages. They had up to 5 lanes and an ordinance or rhythm which expressed the ruling class' power. These boulevards were places of representation of the powerful. They had “ordonance” and rhythm.

Image summary: A historical map or aerial illustration of a city district featuring the Place Dauphine and the Pont Neuf bridge crossing a river. The scene shows tightly packed European-style buildings arranged around a triangular central plaza labeled PLACE DAUPHINE, bordered by the Quai des Orfevres and Quai des Morfondus.

Image summary: A colored engraving titled "Veüe du Cours de la Reine" depicting a grand formal avenue in Paris. The scene features a wide, straight path lined with tall, manicured green trees on both sides, receding into the distance. In the foreground, several figures in period dress walk along the path and near a stone wall, with horse-drawn carriages moving along the central road past a pinkish-red gateway structure.

- “Ordances” = rules which describe how to build the public space and make it greater

London Squares: 1600 to 1800

- In non-Roman cities there were new urban figures less representative of power.

- The squares in London, although also quite geometrical, they were rather a way to develop the city instead of portraying power. They were related to speculative logic and making money.

- In England there were commons or common pastures that were part of the state used by farmers.

- These estates gradually became urbanized, and so a leftover of these common pastures remained.

• All these estates developed, and a square would typically be found in the middle.

- These estates had standardized architecture around them and were green spaces from the beginning, making them more interesting and pleasant for the people instead of for military parades.

- The squares were often fenced collective gardens for the residents living around them implies not public implies reinstallment of social hierarchy

Cities of Paris and Whole: Rome and Saint Petersburg

Apparent Paradox in Baroque Urbanism

- Emphasis on partial plans, rather than on the development of the whole

- Desire for architectural and illusionistic expansion and totality (in specific parts)

An urban project was considered as: a. Capable of giving shape to and causing development of the surroundings.

b. Having a dynamic quality, having a movement, and having achieved a new relationship between existing buildings and spaces

c. Capable of possible expansion

St. Petersburg

- St. Peter the Great had the idea of a big-scale city. He created St. Petersburg, which was a city based on Baroque principles

- with sequences and axes controlling, binding, and keeping the city together.

- At the end of these axes, a visual marker can be found.

- St. peter the Great focuses his whole sequences on the Admirality Shipyard, so on the focus of military power.

Image summary: A historical map of St. Petersburg, titled "St. Petersburg (Casburetropotta)," depicting the city's layout with its extensive network of rivers, canals, and urban blocks. The map highlights the Neva River and its tributaries, including the Little Neva, and details the city's street grids and architectural footprints of the period.

- Along the Admirality are the main places constructed with baroque architecture, ready to impress by the control of their composition.

- Italian and German architects were brought to give these places the grandeur, as they were built to impress.

- There was an attempt to create a very controlled urban square

Image summary: This architectural floor plan depicts a layout containing a University building and an Academy of Sciences.

Image summary: A black and white map of a city center showing the positions of several landmarks, including the Winter Palace and Palace Square, the Admiralty and Admiralty Square, the Senate Square, St. Isaac Cathedral, St. Isaac's Square, Nevskii Prospekt, and the General Staff Building.

which would be reached sideways or through a big gate. And although the square is composed of administrative buildings, the rhythm and control of these squares is still present.

Rome

Rome was a baroque sequence of St. Peters. The St. Peter's square and church were built by Bernini and around the church, there was a conglomerate. Bernini created a remarkable urban figure with a sort of arm-shaped extension around the square (open-gesture), placing the St. Peter's square in a new sort of condition and importance. He created a sequence of at least 4 parts:

- A street called Via Della Consellazione leading from the Tiber to the St. Peter

Image summary: An aerial photograph of St. Peter's Basilica and St. Peter's Square in Vatican City, showing the large domed basilica overlooking a vast, elliptical plaza enclosed by two semicircular colonnades.

- A little square, Piazza Rusticucci, leading to the bigger area, the Piazza Obliqua with an obelisk in the middle, which encapsulated the public with its “arms” to based on the baroque's principle of a perfect geometry and underlines by a perfect architecture

- In the “arms” there is a gallery with columns dividing the central space in a sort of annex spaces

- In front of the church there is the Piazza Retta, which was a tapered-formed, low-leveled area to create an illusion so the low facade of the St. Peters would appear more important

- Bernini worked carefully with the urban section of the whole sequence. He kept the galleries very low and raised the Piazza Retta to the same level of the St. Peters

Elsewhere in Rome during the same period, the Piazza del Popolo was transformed in the same way. Bernini, Renaldo and Fontana gradually turned it into a very controlled urban figure, which is controlled in its urban layout but also in its urban sequence. They created a monumental sequence with a gate, square with obelisk, a bigger square, and 2 churches.

Exporting the Baroque City: Washington

- Some of these baroque principles started to be exported to the U.S.A. The U.S.A was still being organized during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries

- As Washington started to become the capital of the country, Pierre L'Enfant was well informed about the baroque principles that were taking place in Europe and so was asked to create the city of Washington

- Washington consisted of many small settlements, so L'Enfant had plenty of space to think about the city

- Topography played a big role

: Image summary: A historical line drawing map titled Design of the Federal City, depicting the site of the City of Washington. The map shows the topography and approximate location of old roads, centering on the confluence of the Potomac River and the Eastern Branch. Accompanying text labeled Selection of Building Sites extracts from L'Enfant's Reports contains three dated excerpts from 1790 and 1791 addressed to President Washington, describing the geographical features and potential locations for government buildings.

- He added a bigger grid to the city as well as a grid of urban blocks, so a double grid of ordering the city, due to him, where the people would be located in the grid in a very democratic way to equal distribution

- This grid was a continuous one, so the grid the same size and density throughout

- A system of big axes allowed one to go from one place to the other with squares at the points of encounter

- These squares created an important centrality for the city

- The aspect of commerce started entering which was not typically seen before in the baroque cities

H.S V.L 07: The City of Labor: Company Towns as Cross-Cultural

Survey of topography

Phenomenon

18th, 19th Century – Scientific and Technological Advancement

During this era, many types of engines were developed like:

- the piston-driven atmospheric engine

- the steam engine with sun-and-planet gear, which was used to propel motors

- the Flying Shuttle

- the Spinning Jenny

- etcetera

The emergence of motors and engines revolutionized the industry.

- They introduced the notion of factories and industrialization in cities, particularly in England with textile fabrics.

- This also led to a flow of people into the cities for work.

- These inventions also revolutionized transport, like for example the invention of railways with locomotives, which changed the way of how people traveled and how goods were transported. It was suddenly possible to bring larger amounts of people and good rapidly to urban centers.

Image summary: A historical map depicting the development of the railway and telegraph networks in Central Europe. The map uses a color-coded legend to categorize railways based on their opening dates: red for those opened before 1845, orange for 1845 to 1855, and brown for 1856 to 1866. Green lines represent telegraph lines established by 1845. The network spans a broad region including present-day Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic, Austria, and surrounding areas, showing a dense concentration of lines connecting major cities.

- These inventions were very important, due to the dense network of cities being connected with cities in other countries. This propelled the industry in these cities, as well as their urbanization.

- Scientific and Technological Avancement leads to effected trading (Material, Ware, Personen auch urban design!) leads to Europa wurde schnell grösser durch diese Invention

Explosive Urban Growth

- Era of explosive urbanization and combination of urban pattern (mobility)

- London and other cities like Manchester and Liverpool became big metropolis

- 18-19th century dense of people was 2x so big

• Footprint expanded in the beginning

- Issues emerged through the explosive urban growth

• Working conditions

• How people lived and in which conditions

- freed-rick Engels, “Die Lage der arbeitende Klasse in England”

• was the son of an industrialaser

• Criticism of these working cities (=Arbeitsstädte)

- Questioned the housing issues and working conditions, as well as the poor living conditions

- His Critism: "the conditions how people live there is so bad, that the motartily rate is 4 times higher than outside those working cities"

- Criticizes these conditions and the capital abuse in England and later in G.E

- Ex. Conditions: unhygienic city, polluted Rivers, to dense, sickness

- Gustave Doré (artist)

• London: A pilgrimage

- Critic in drawings leads to Made publications of images of the living conditions in laboring houses leads to painted the dense areas where labours where living

- Talks about the unhygienic conditions and dark, ill ventilated interiors people live in his book.

• High death rates

- Miasma theory (cholera, chlamydia or black death, caused by a noxious form of “bad air” to really important for the urban theory)

Image summary: A black and white engraving depicting a densely packed, industrial urban alleyway viewed through a stone archway. The scene is dominated by towering brick buildings with numerous tall chimneys emitting smoke. In the center, a narrow street is filled with crowds of people, leading toward a large arched bridge or viaduct in the background. Highly detailed brickwork, laundry hanging between buildings, and a cluttered atmosphere emphasize the cramped conditions of the cityscape.

- Diseases such as cholera, black death and chlamydia

- No green, fresh air only bad air

- And with these poor conditions they act socially poor and act “bad” (like the air)

These arguments brought up by freed-rick Engels and Gustave Dorée about these poor housing, working, and living conditions of the workers in particular resonated with society at large but also with architects and urban designers.

London: over rail --> conditions of the people

Attitudes toward the industrial society in urban design:

1. Radical utopianism: no way out of the crisis, we must build up human civilization from the very beginning somewhere out of the industrial society. Preference for a radically new foundation for ideal social and environment conditions.

The ideal workers town

The utopian socialists: new cities as paths to social change

2. Reform: believing in the possible improvement of social and environmental conditions through legislation and large-scale public works: the beginning of an urban tradition of transformation of existing cities.

• Working class housing: early prototypes in Paris & L.D.N, 1840s-1850s

3. Continuity of traditions: believing in the continuity of tradition and the predominance of handcrafts and aesthetics.

News from nowhere: the small town and the stones of Venice

Radical Utopianism – The ideal Workers Town

Claude Nicolas Ledoux was a French Neoclassical architect working for the king of France. He designed small pavilions in Paris. He created a proposal for a new city named Saline Royale of Choux in 1779

- 1775: first project factory projected as a square.

- Productive elements and the slat factory in the square.

- Housing for the employees, collective buildings, and a big courtyard at the bottom.

- Big building but small town

- Gardens where workers could cultivate for their own use, as well as churches, etcetera were outside of the first square.

- 1779: proposal of a new city based on the ideal of a salt factory. Square replaced by circle.

• Located near the river and between a big forest and between 2 villages

।Image summary: An architectural floor plan for a large, symmetrical estate or palace. The design features a central octagonal courtyard labeled Cour der bois, surrounded by various rooms and galleries, including a chapel, a king's room, and service areas. The main structure is enclosed by an outer rectangular perimeter with gardens and a formal entrance at the bottom labeled Avenue. A legend on the right and left sides identifies specific areas with letters and numbers, such as A for Porte d'Entrée and 3 for Limeu ou Un Fabrique.

• Housing, church, and courthouse in the periphery of the circle

House of the director of the fabric in the middle with main access leading directly towards it. Constructed in a neoclassical style, very grand. to Palladian Villa

workers were in one ring

• Salt works on each side of the director's house. Constructed with a sort of dignity and architectural quality just like the workers' houses. to workers' houses were more collectively build with monumental entrance

Image summary: An aerial photograph of a large, symmetrical architectural complex arranged in a horseshoe or semi-circular layout. The ensemble consists of several long, low-profile buildings with dark roofs and white classical columns, bordering a vast, central green lawn. A network of white pathways radiates from a central circular hub, connecting the various wings and pavilions of the estate.

- Next to the salt factories, outside of the first perimeter, other buildings were planned:

○ Building to extract water from the river

○ Bridge leading to the main access

- Small houses for the director of the river building

- Small hotels and a little hospital

- o Houses for higher employees

- o Monuments

- On the second perimeter more buildings were made

○ Markets

○ A cemetery

○ Public baths

- Idea of providing housing for laborers and also gardens for self-attainment.

- Try to improve the condition of the workers but at the same time it is a figure of control

- Model criticized for its panopticon condition, which is a prison-like condition.

- Residents felt watched at all times by the guards

○ Discipline of the guards always over that of residents.

- We can compare the Arc-et-Senans with panopticon regime

The Utopian Socialists: New Cities as Paths to Social Change

Robert Owen (1771 to 1858) a philanthropist and a reformer, talked about how to change society and the conditions of housing and working. He saw 3 big obstacles which he believed were blocking better social forms and thus better living and working conditions:

- private property

- religion

- present social structure: ideal and core of marriage (men and women marry to have kids) to to rigid, from which we can't evolve

New Lanark Mills, Scotland 1779

- They were his textile mills

- was modernized and living conditions were created.

: Image summary: A conceptual diagram of a panopticon, featuring a circular prison structure with multiple tiers of cells radiating from a central observation tower. The cells are arranged in concentric rings, and a beam of light emanates from the tower, illustrating the ability of a single guard to monitor all prisoners simultaneously.

- Functions such as schools and kindergartens were provided to the workers to this provided free time and time to work on the mills for the workers to parents don't have to take care of the kids

- Reference for other factory owners. Robert Owen started to formulate his ideas in other designs. He wrote and published the idea of creating a new urban form for communities: villages of harmony and cooperation (where people could work and live)

- Self-supporting agriculture community leads to Self-contained and largely based on agriculture and not industry.

- Situated in various areas and would be cooperating with the land.

- No real streets and located around a major courtyard with a main collecting building and housing and courtyards surrounding it.

- Ideal number of people in the village: around 3'000

- Idea: habitants would help one another and would share the fruits of the land amongst them.

He elaborated his principles for a new set of communities:

- Established by a joint-stock company

• Purchase of the land, construction of the requisite buildings

• On lease to a company of tenants

• Tenants gradually to pay down the rents until ultimately becoming owners

- Calling it “magnificent place, containing advantages of a Metropolis”

- School of college: physical, intellectual, moral, and practical from infancy to maturity.

- Magnificent buildings that had to do with culture

• In center of each side of the square: “magnificent Buildings”

Image summary: A black and white architectural plan for a formal garden. The garden is square and enclosed by a perimeter wall with corner bastions and gatehouses. The interior layout is highly symmetrical, featuring a central octagonal feature from which four primary paths radiate toward the midpoints of the walls, intersected by a circular path that creates a cross-like geometry. Sinuous, organic paths wind through the remaining garden beds, which are dotted with small circular nodes.

- Assembly and Concert Rooms, Libraries and Reading Rooms, Museums "place of workshop", Laboratories, Artists' Rooms, Lectures Rooms, etcetera

- Sides of square/in the space between: Dwelling-Houses

- within the square: Gymnasia and Baths

- Projecting into square: refectionies and kitchens

- Interior of square: tasteful layout

- Around: farns, manufacturies, washing, slaughter houses to Cultivating mind and body became important in a new and different way

These communities were called New Harmony

- Based idea of big open courtyard with buildings, creating a perimeter with housing.

- Everyday collective buildings in the center, like gymnasia, dining rooms, etcetera

- Also, brewhouses and bathhouses

- Although inhabited by laborers, had sort of noble outlook to not something related to back streets and dark alleys.

- Located in various situations in the territory, due to self-containment.

Owen's ideas inspired many new communities. “Owenized” communities (16 of them) appeared in the U.S.A between 1825 and 1829

Other utopian socialists like Charles Fourier thought that education was important and new forms of livings should be talked about. In his “Théorie des quatres mouvements et des destinées generales” he described how humanity was passing from the fourth period (barbarism) to the fifth one (civilization). The sixth would follow (guaranteeism – respect for civil rights) and lastly the seventh (harmony), the phase of the Universal Harmony, which would be characterized by:

- Phalanxes: New communities in which people should be housed together.

- Phalansteries: New urban/town units. Decentralized/self-contained and covered. 1620 members. Well organized mini society

- Economic activities strictly linked to the area surrounding the phalanstery

• Reduction in the importance of industry and new emphasis on agriculture, handcrafts, intellectual activities and amusement

• Restriction of private property and social inequality

- Restriction of any kind of exploitation and promotion of the attractive work

);//Image summary: An architectural diagram titled PLAN D'UN PHALANSTERE Ou Palais habité par une Phalange industrielle, illustrating the layout of a Phalanstery. The symmetrical floor plan features a central entrance A, a winter garden B with evergreen trees, and several inner service courtyards D. The legend identifies various functional areas including a theater F, a church G, stables and rural buildings J, and a round-about K, along with storage areas H for grain, warehouses, and hangars.

Image summary: An architectural line drawing from the publication L'Avenir titled Perspective d'un Phalanstère ou Palais Sociétaire dédié à l'Humanité. The drawing depicts a large, symmetrical, U-shaped building complex characterized by multiple stories of repetitive windows and a prominent central tower.

Charles fourier relied on the baroque palace (of Louis 19) as an example for workers' housing. Opposite of the housing complexes there was the idea of working places (workshops and stables) for the private use, which had a lot to do with agriculture. There were also cultural and religious buildings. Urban design:

- image of a baroque palace (of Louis 19): in an ideal society everybody will live in a palace;

• decentralized and covered units

• gallery streets

- differentiation of space according to functional purposes

- Around palaces: parks and ponds, surrounded by meadows and fields with garden houses and belvédères

Familistères, north of France 1859

- Jean-Baptiste ahn-dray Godin (1817 to 188) started to use the ideas of Fourier's

phalansteries to create his own communities to his own plan

- Instead of phalanstery (like Fourier) he calls it Familistères

- Located beside his iron factory

- Noble place with architecture made of brickwork with big public spaces, as well as interior and exterior collective spaces.

- Social palace for the housing of workers, including bathrooms, etcetera

- Collective functions like kindergartens, theaters, schools, etcetera

- Idea of Fourier of free-time activities and areas was maintained.

- Open public spaces, as well as interior covered courtyards as communal spaces for workers.

- Washing, taking care of kids, etcetera was made collectively to following the principle of taking care of the body and the mind of Fourier.

Boston Farm by George Ripley – 1850

- Uses ideas od phalanstery (Idea of Fourier) but in a far more opened and relaxed way than Godin.

- “More natural unity between intellectual and manual labor”, creating a liberal, cultural, and cultured society, whose relationships with each other would allow a salutary, simple life without competitive institutions.

- Merge thinker and worker into the same person

• Abolish need for low services by simultaneously offering education and labor

- Collective gathering places

- No urban design form

- His idea resonated with the world for a long time.

Reform

Idea of changing and transforming cities to create better working and living conditions. Working-Class Housing: Early Prototypes in Paris and London, 1840s – 1850s In Britain working conditions were very bad. freed-rick Engels talks about this situation in his “Die Lage in der arbeitende Klassen in England”. He describes the city as

• Disorderly

- Narrow, crooked, and filthy streets

- Houses are occupied from cellar to garret

• The poorest of the poorest

• Whirlpool of moral ruin  physical and mental were connected to one another

He talks about places in a very bad condition and becoming morally ruined, drinking, smoking, opium. A reaction emerged about transforming these conditions. They came from

2-track action:

• From the state with the Metropolitan Building Act of 1844

From the philanthropy angle with the Society for Improving the Condition of the Laboring Classed of 1844

They both came up with suggestions to change these conditions. The following prototypes are some of them.

London, Model Houses 1851

- Alternative housing typology. Looked like housing blocks.

- Larger collective houses built around big open areas.

- Apartments disclosed by open-air galleries around a big courtyard.

- Windows and openings towards the street as well.

- Larger housing typologies for 40 to 50 families

- Smaller types also built for 4 families.

• Much smaller

• Large access to lighting

• 2 families on ground floor, 2 on upper floor

• New more compact, more healthy way of living in the city

Paris, Cité Napoléon 1851

- Same kind of typology as Model Houses

- Cité Naopoléon

- Gave commitments to one arch is Mary Gabriel

- Often courtyards were also used to organize the circulation of the apartments.

- Covered courtyards (not like Model Houses)

- Bigger passages in the middle of courtyard to ensure lighting and ventilation.

- Inserted in dense urban fabric of Paris, merging with the urban fabric easily.

- New housing system that are designs aorund on the centre where the courtyard is

- Introduced in the existing houses

- Small bathrooms (not normal bc usually you had to go to bath house) / small kitchen

- to Radical idea. Bc was an idea for workers not rich people

Regulating the Existing City: The Project of Haussmann

The reasons for these developments were revolts and uprising, with which the working class demanded better conditions. As Paris was growing very fast and the living conditions were very bad, the state created a regulatory plan to control the growth of the city.

A comprimse between working class and upcoming working class, bourgeoisie and feudal ruling class. This was to:

- Avoid demonstrations and protect public space

- End the attitude to build in an absolute liberalism and “laissez faire” manner to control development as a common interest

- To make the medieval looking city suitable to the development of capitalism and of an industrial society

- To create a new model for the city to demonstrate that the city is salvageable (city is not condemned to death), not like the anti-urban ideologies of the utopias

- And to begin an economic, financial, and cultural competition between large cities and the “Grand manner”

Georges-Eugène Hausmann

Perfect of the Seine, 1853 to Napoléon decided oversees to develop a new urban plan which was handed to Georges-Eugène Haussmann.

- The plan was to make the city more accessible for military purposes and with better living conditions.

- Haussmann started the biggest public work by retaining the most important monuments, but also by breaking down forests and houses. Haussmann was not only creating a new urban frame, new public spaces, houses, etcetera but also a new urban culture.

- Knocked down 12'000 building

- had to destroy very big part of medieval Paris by cutting through it

- The city is like a wild forest: you need to cut trails and clearings to get it to air and to avoid fire" (a symbolic slogan of the new middle class)

- He created very consistent avenues and boulevards.

• Does boulevards lead to important spaces and new urban arch. next to it

- retaining the most important buildings and monuments, and connecting them with wide and straight avenues

• Facades along these streets were also important

- 12000 building were demolished to create wider avenues for transport, air, military and police and new infrastructure

- Particularly at the corners of the big boulevards, we can see the new creations of figures. An organization consisting of trees, walkways, etcetera o beneath these new boulevards, there was a hygienic project of sewage systems

Image summary: A map of Paris showing a network of roads and streets. A complex web of red lines is superimposed over the grey street grid, highlighting specific arterial routes and connections across the city. A north arrow is located in the top left corner.

- Also, big public and smaller parks were created as a new way of organizing the city, and where the inhabitants of Paris could enjoy fresh air, etcetera

- Hausmann was creating a new sort of city and a new sort of architecture, made of these Hausmanian blocks.

- New urban facades, new logic:

• Double base goes to commercial or work function

- Above the base was the novel level more decorated (easily reach b stares), which was a bit more elaborated and higher, where the nobility was living

• 2 living levels

- Level 5 continuous balcony

- Under the roof living space

- These blocks were these blinds that often has a double height

- There were these 5 flooring consistent buildings. These 5 floors also had to do with the bourgeoisie. The fifth and the roof floor were where people of lower classes lived as there was no elevator, creating a sort of social mixing.

- It was a very intense way of creating the city in a mixed way by creating a mix of different social levels, work, commerce all in one building.

5. Cron section of a Parisian house about 1860 showing the economic status of tenants varying by floors. (Edmund Texier, Tableau de Paris, Paris, 1852, 1, 65.)

।Figure 5 summary: A cross-section line drawing of a Parisian house from about 1850 that illustrates the economic status of tenants across five levels. The ground floor (Rez-de-Chaubee) contains a concierge area and humble living quarters. The first floor (1 etage) features ornate decorations, large rooms, and well-dressed occupants. The second (2 etage) and third (3 etage) floors show progressively smaller rooms and simpler furnishings. The top attic level contains the most cramped, sparsely furnished quarters with residents in plain clothing.

Reforming city in a bourgoise Paris in a very radical way by Haussmann (only took around 15 years)

- Changing public spaces (ex. phone cabins, lamps, etv.)

- Urban decorum (balcony's and decorations) suggested by Haussmann

- Material

- New public sphere

- by introducing an architectural public facade (with balconys

Image summary: An architectural drawing serving as a design kit for a city across different scales. It features a collection of line-drawn classical elements including a large multi-story building facade as the centerpiece, surrounded by various modular components such as columns, window frames, ornate doors, cornices, railings, and decorative moldings.

- New boulevards, balcony's where typical for the upper-class the Bourgoise

William Morris (1824 to 1896) - New from Nowhere: The Small Town and the Stones of Venice

- William Morris believed that the model of an ideal society rooted in the handicraft cultures, closely related to the medieval city and small towns.

- The model of an ideal society roots in the handicraft cultures, closely related to the medieval city and to the small towns ("News from Nowhere")

- He said that the ethics and aesthetics of handicraft represents the remedy from the misery of the industrial society and the mass production. Ex. Red House to Arts and crafts movement

- Main principle is the continuity of culture and with it a new Tradition!

- William Morris to is a really important thinker of the arts and crafts movement

- Not embressing the machines

- He is embrassing the craft and arts leads to a world of tradition

- Never made an urban design plan, but build a house with Philipp Weber (redn house)

John Ruskin (1819 to 1900)

- British architect, also believed that one should go back in time

- Stone of Venice (1851 to 1843) pleaded to return to gothic architecture underling manual craft and collecting labour

- He made the study “Stones of Venice” where he looked at the detail and craftmanship of these cities and tried to understand how in the gothic period ways of living and craft were entangled o Three eras: Byzantine, Gothic and Renaissance

Image summary: A detailed architectural drawing of a Gothic structure featuring a central pointed arch topped by a carved human head. Above the arch is a decorative crest consisting of a shield in a circular frame, flanked by two smaller circular panels and a central relief of a bird, likely an eagle.

○ Gothic approach demonstrated a better understanding of the fusion of thought and manual craft

Only through collective labor that thought could be fully realized and vice versa

He believed that this period could show a way out of this industrial dilemma on living and working

• Arts and craft movement inspired new settlements  the rusken communities near Tennessee City

Groups of people decided to distane themselves of machines

○ To reconnect with manual craft and collaborative cooperation

People tried to live as if industrialisation didn't happen

○ Autonomy

Community: Ruskin Commonwealth Association near Tennessee 1894 to 96.

H.S V.L 08: Garden Cities of Tomorrow: From the Global North to the Global South and Back Again

Late 19th century

Industrialization and thus big, industrialized cities emerged all over the world, leading to an enormous trade of products. The mechanization in agriculture and factories led to the growth of the cities. Urbanization emerged and thus bigger cities with a big population.

Birth and death rates were affected by:

- Increasing supply of food

- Agricultural revolution in the 18th century in Europe

• Expansion of the international economy and improvements in transport

- Medical advances lead to new vaccines, etcetera

The growth of urbanization and population led to diseases like cholera which were dispersed very strongly. This led to advances in medicine and cities started to realize that they were not equipped to deal with enormous population.

Intercontinental migration also started in the 19th century. The reasons for this were:

- “push factors” such as poverty at home

- “pull factors” such as availability of work in the country of destination

- 1883 to 1914: 900'000 people entered the U.S from europe

><!-- Figure 2 summary: A world map illustrating two major population movements between 1500 and 1914. Red arrows represent migration originating from Asia, including 22 million from China (1820-1914) and 8 million from Japan (1900-1914). Green arrows show migration from Europe, Scandinavia, and western Russia, including 32 million (1620-1914) and 7.4 million (1530-1914) to North America, 10 million from the Russian Empire (1880-1914), and 3 million to Australia. Purple arrows denote migration from Africa, including 12 million (1530-1860) to the Americas. Other noted migrations include 1.5 million from Europe (1850-1914), 4.3 million from Africa (1500-1900), and 3 million from India (1850-1914). -->

- Revolution in transport which substantially reduced the cost of transatlantic travel

- Investment of European capital overseas, which created opportunities for railway building and economic development

- African slave trade to Brazil and Cuba

Due to migration, cross-culture was happening due to the travel of goods and people to not only economic migration, also cultural migration:

- Van Gogh/Edgar Degas, inspired by Japanese paintings

- Moving of cultural ideas in urban design, paintings and architecture

System of industrialization stared to be questioned to Things started to move towards industrialisation, urbanisation and urban design

A Collective Model of Urbanization: Ebenezer Howard

- Ebenezer Howard developed a model of urban design leads to the Garden City

- He said: We need to move move to a different type of society. One that is not based on capitalism and speculations of low wages to need to think about what sort of society

- Founded the Garden City Association in 1899

- Inspired by:

- the Riverside urban neighborhood, dense but very green

- green way, architect

• William Morris theory of solidarity

- Peter Kroporkins theory and more modern ideas like Henry George and his idea about the depression, related to the capitalist system to Who owns the land?

• Edward Bellany  Society was transformed and where all social inequalities were erased  redistribution of resources

- His theory was that technological advances made land more expensive, the rents and speculation increased, and the value of labor were decreasing.

Solution:

- o change the attitude towards the property of land

○ New civilization based on service to the community

- Technology along cooperative principles established a society of abundance, leisure, and high culture

○ Technocratic socialist utopia

○ A society where the increases in technology, productivity, and wealth did not heighten the contrasting conditions of the rich and the poor

- Idea of community leasing a big piece of land and each family would own a house and garden there to introduction of social individualism and the public ownership of land to create industrial and social conditions far superior that the already existing ones

○ The Garden Cities of Tomorrow

- He started thinking about a new city design in his Garden Cities of Tomorrow book. He looked for a model mediating 2 typologies: the town and the country. He tried to achieve beauty of nature and social opportunities by combining the advantages of both typologies, creating the idea of the garden city.

Diagram, Three Magnets arrow shows best the idea of Garden city Ebenezer Howard

- The Town

- City with a lot of social opportunities

• A money wages

- Flispside: gin coffees, slumbs

- The country

• Access to nature

• Fresh air

- Lack of society leads to no opportunities to meet a lot of divvrent people

• Lack of amusement

• lack of social spirit

- The town-country = Garden city

Beauty of nature (like country)

• Social opportunity (like town)

Low rents

Image summary: This diagram, titled The Three Magnets, illustrates the pull of different living environments on the people. It features three horseshoe magnets representing Town, Country, and Town-Country, each surrounded by text describing their respective pros and cons. The Town magnet lists both opportunities and drawbacks like high wages and social life contrasted with slums and high rents. The Country magnet lists benefits like beauty and fresh air contrasted with isolation and low wages. The central Town-Country magnet presents an idealized synthesis, combining benefits such as social opportunity, high wages, and fields of easy access with features like pure air, no slums, and bright homes and gardens.

• High wages

No smoking no slumbs

• Alternative approach for a city

How can does Garden City be governed?

Land will be in the hands of the bigger cooperative of the garden city

• Small rents

A lot of money for collective and public service -> like affordable housing

How the garden City would be designed:

- Population 32'000

- City 1000 Acres

- Agricultural land 5000 Acres

- Circular city

With central park in the middle

○ green centre to open public space

○ crystal palace  covered open public space

• Concentric circles with boulevards

○ 1 first concentring ring: public function town hall, concert hall etcetera

○ 2 concentring rings: central park and Crystal park

○ Several avenue 5,4,2,1 leads to housing

- 5000m squared of agriculture area

- Gardencity is distant of the big city in L.D.N

- Idea shouldn't be so crowded Amount of money the tendents can generate

Image summary: A decorative historical chart titled The Vanishing Point of Landlords Rent, illustrating the transition of land values from landlord rent to municipal purposes within a Garden City model. The chart states that current rent and local rates are £144,000 per year, or £4.10 per head. It describes a process where, upon migrating to a Garden City, rents are reduced to £2 per head. Through a series of six circular diagrams representing a timeline from completion, after 10 years, after 20 years, after 25 years, after 80 years, and thence-forward, the proportion of funds available for landlord's rent diminishes until it is entirely replaced by funds available for municipal purposes and old age pensions.

○ 3 avenue doesn't exist implies Grand avenue, where kindergartens, school etcetera is

- North of L.D.N railway would connect city centre with this garden city

• Places like Children homes

- One gardencity a system of a bigger one Blue: Amount of money goes to the community

Orange part is industry and working space (very outside)

Red: Amount of money that goes to the landlords

By migrating to the Garden City this will change since the community is the landboard!

- Water supply: infrastructure and reserves in this green areas with canals leading the water in city centre

Characteristics of the idea:

• Balance between urbanized and agricultural land

• Connected to other cities by railroads and water

Roads radiating from the center of the city with garden in the middle and important buildings surrounding this middle garden which would be again surrounded by a central park

Crystal palace and then 5 avenues with urbanized areas and industries in the back

Urbanized part surrounded with agriculture land but also institutes like asylums, etcetera

Canals providing the city with good water and water reservoirs in the agricultural land

He said that his model of growth could be used to think about existing cities as the central city and satellite-like cities surrounding it. He didn't want to extend existing cities but rather link them to other cities around it.

The Garden City Realized

Letchwork

- Designed by Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin (big part of the Arts and Crafts movement)

- First true garden city in the U.K

- This city won a competition of urban design

- Land was already there. Letchwork estate was connected to the Kingscross station through railways to no longer the idea of Howard

- Idea of connecting the garden city to London through railroads very important

- Corporate emerged, where people could buy shares (Howard)

- Follows existing settlements and follows the topography (different from Howard)

- City was to grow gradually

- Idea of agriculture was kept. While in development, common agricultural fields and factory sites were present

><?=$ Image summary: A hand-drawn urban planning diagram titled "SECTION, (18th) & CENTRE of GARDEN CITY." The layout centers on a 7-acre Central Garden surrounded by boulevards leading to a Concert Hall, Theatre, Museum, Picture Gallery, and Town Hall. Extending southward from the garden is a 150-acre Central Park, which is 120 feet wide. This park is intersected by 90-foot-wide roads separating residential areas labeled "Houses & Gardens." A wide central passage called "GRAND AVENUE," described as 120 feet wide and 3 miles long, contains a school and is flanked by more residential areas. At the bottom of the map, an industrial zone containing factories, timber yards, and markets is bordered by a "Circle Railway" and a "Main Line Railway."

- Outside of the urbanized perimeter, a big cultural belt was kept green for agricultural purposes, as well as an industrial area connected to the railroad

Building Regulations Houses (1904)

- Simple and straightforward buildings without useless ornamentation

- Use of good and harmonious materials

• Pebble dashed or painted roughcast brickwork walls

• Tiled roofs

Public Buildings

- Formal, carried out in dark red brick

- Estate Office, Museum, Free Church

Tree-Planting and Landscaping

- Trees and greenswards of the residential roads should have unified variable building standards

- Hedges, trees, shrubs, and verges gave the whole town a park-like appearance

The landscape was primary and the architecture secondary. In order to make these places greener, the figure s of the green or close were invented.

• Green/close

no longer public but rather a place around the house

o a collective green space for the people living around

○ introducing a semi-private domain in city

• 3 landscapes

○ Completely private

Collectively owned

○ Privately owned

• Architecture

Image summary: A black and white site plan of a residential development featuring a grid-like arrangement of housing blocks interspersed with communal spaces. The layout includes several areas labeled as Green, several areas labeled as Allotments, a Bowling Alley, a Tennis court, and an Institute.

○ Very simple and referred to the Arts and Crafts movement

Protruding elements

☑ Rough cast walls

Big tile roods

Tall chimneys

A type of vernacular architecture

○ Collective houses elaborated in a different way

Soon, these garden cities were the subject of cartoons in architecture magazines, being criticized for not being industrialized.

Hampstead

- Henrietta Barnett was an important reformer and took the initiative of the Hampstead Garden Suburb

- Urban design commissioned to Parker and Unwin

- Promoted by being a place of health

Image summary: A planning map titled Proposed Garden Suburb at Hampstead North London, showing a residential layout characterized by winding roads and clusters of houses interspersed with large green open spaces. The layout includes identified areas such as the Hampstead Heath Extension and Hampstead Heath, with a key providing references for various features including residential buildings, public spaces, and road types. A scale indicates the area is approximately 0.3 miles by 1 mile.

- Garden city for all classes through the mixing of different housing types

- The neighborhoods were made of houses of different size and status to fulfill objective of accommodating all classes assigned to discrete areas

- 2 transport hubs with the idea of landscape in-between

- Existing vegetation was taken into consideration and city garden was fit in-between

- Center was an open, green space with main public buildings surrounding it like the town hall

- Church in rather formal architecture, rest of the suburb more in an Arts and Crafts architecture

- Corners of crossing streets were elaborated in a particular way and entry points were given attention

- Suburb houses referred to the neo-vernacular architecture and part of the Arts and Crafts idea on how architecture should be

• Collective and private green very important

- Public green on the main roads implies front garden

Welwyn

Image summary: An aerial photograph of a residential street lined with white cottages featuring dark pitched roofs. Several cars are parked along the side of the road and driving through the neighborhood, which is surrounded by lush green lawns, hedges, and mature trees.

- Realized by Louis de Soisson following the principles of railroads and other ideas of Ebenezer Howard

- Architecture was formal and not so much in the Arts and Crafts style

- Semi-detached or detached houses

Image summary: An architectural diagram of the town plan for Welwyn Garden City, designed by Louis de Soissons. The map illustrates the layout of road and rail communications, designating specific areas for residential use, factory zones, open spaces, and shopping areas. The town is enclosed by an agricultural belt, with a central railway line running north to south connecting to London.

- Collective image was more important than house themselves

- Housing typology with very large roofs, as constructing roofs was cheaper than constructing walls

Image summary: A photograph of a row of two-story red brick cottage-style houses lining a paved pedestrian walkway. Two men are walking side-by-side along the path toward the viewer. The foreground features small gardens with green shrubs and white bollards connected by chains separating the walkway from the greenery.

- Attempt to have differentiation with different house types showing the different classes of societies

- Big parkway with the idea of various axes linking different areas

Den'en Toshi: The Japanese Garden City

The idea of the garden city was also very important in geographies like Japan. In Japan the industrialization was growing very rapidly, so at that time they became also million cities. The influence of many people talking about the theories and ideas of garden cities led to their implementation in Japan. One Garden Cities was called Den'en toshi.

- Alfred Richard Sennet: Garden Theories and Practice (Book)

- Ideas of Ebenezer Howard almost literally translated. In Japan, different notions were developed:

• Garden city

• Pastoral city

• flower city

• country-like city

- Railroad companies were emerging, enabling connections of different parts of the city

Tokyo: idea of garden city became more and more important

The difference between the British and Japanese garden cities:

- Japanese

• Still in the hands of industrialists

- Mainly thought as urban areas and rural areas were left for the focus on urban aspects

- More concentrated in the middle and higher classes

- After the garden city was realized, it was expanded and the green, rural belt idea was not maintained

- Houses were a very Japanese style and more modern style

- British

More dedicated to working classes

• Railroads were very important

Rus in Urbe

Soria y Mata and the Linear City

Spanish architect and urban planner Arturo Soria y Mata became a very important figure in thinking about the cities, by thinking in a radical way. He said we needed to think of cities as linear entities. 2 cities and in-between the new linear city, communicating with the 2 urban poles. He launched this model in 1882 and spoke about it in a theoretical way.

: An architectural diagram titled "TEORÍA DE LAS CIUDADES LINEALES" illustrating a linear city concept. The drawing shows a long, narrow, structured urban corridor consisting of parallel streets and rectangular blocks that connects two larger, denser urban agglomerations at either end. This linear development is set within a naturally contoured landscape featuring shaded areas and a small stream flowing alongside the city structure.

- Defined as a theoretical idea and implemented in the city of Madrid

- Main idea: spine with collective transport

- Pedestrian traffic and carriage traffic

- Axis all about transport in the middle of the city but also other infrastructures such as electricity, gas, and water supply and sewage.

• Along it there are bigger urban blocks with a very particular idea (mancanas):

- Combination of different allotments and housing. This had to do with a social idea to different social groups should live side by side

- Perpendicular spines with green areas on the outside reserved for agriculture

- He believed a 58 kilometers linear development could be folded according to existing urban settlements, topography, streets, patterns, etcetera This became a continuous linear development.

- Housing typologies for lower and higher economic classes and size of the allotments were thought out. Some realized in the perimetry of Madrid

Nowadays, we can still recognize some of this spine with the different blocks and house typologies. All these houses were situated in a green landscape.

l'emplo de una Ciudad Lineal enlazando dos cidades aglomeradas, o sea, una Ciudad Lineal moderna uniendo dos Ciidades-puntos anti- guas con una faja a cada lado de 100 metros de bosque.

The Russian Desurbanists and the Linear City

Image summary: An aerial photograph of a densely populated urban area, featuring a red line drawn across the city to highlight a specific route or boundary cutting through the residential and commercial blocks.

Linear city also influenced architects and urban designers in Russia in the 1920s

The idea was suggested for the city of Moscow by deurbanizers

- They went away from the idea of the green city and towards the linear city. The city would gradually deurbanize and from the city center, a linear city would develop with linear extensions

- In the 1920s and 30s, the idea of how the only way to get rid of the inequalities between the urban and the rural, was to urbanize the territory

- Ivan Leonidov suggested a linear city. This was the idea for leisure and industry in a way of extending already existing cities like the city of Magnitogorsk (where steel was produced)

- The believed one could make a linear extension that had different zones

- These zones were related to transportation

- Next to the zone of transportation was the industrial zone and then the residential and park zone with leisure functions and finally a larger green zone

- All these different zones are continuously though as strips of the linear city. In the dwelling zone there are high-rise and low-rise parts with collective spaces

: Image summary: A black and white architectural or urban planning diagram consisting of a grid of rectangular cells. The grid contains various abstract symbols, including circular forms, hatched rectangles, jagged lines suggesting vegetation, and interconnected block-like structures, representing a conceptual spatial arrangement or zoning layout.

Image summary: This diagram consists of two parts: a top map showing a geographical area with a body of water and a built-up region, and a bottom close-up detail. A red arrow points from a specific point in the top map to the bottom image, which is a high-contrast black and white architectural site plan. The plan depicts a linear, grid-like structure with a series of dark, circular motifs interspersed within the grid, set against a background of topographic contour lines and additional circular shapes.

H.S V.L 09: Civilized Wilderness and City Beautiful: The Park Movement

of Olmsted and The Urban Plans of Burnham

Late 19th and the beginning of 20th century in the U.S.A it was an area of industrial development, population and urbanization thanks to the industrialization and railroads and canals.

- Population and urbanisation

- Railroads and canals

- Industrial development

- New technological inventions

- New York; Electric light into the City's leads to Central power Station 1880 leads to made the city a place that was safe at night as well

- New technologies to radical urban expansions (city started growing)

- Poor living conditions is the consequence

- Miasma theory of diseases: diseases are transported by bad air

- growing interest in hygiene

Social reforms at the turn of the twentieth century:

- 1908 Pittsburgh Survey: first comprehensive analysis of social welfare addressing issues such as public health, labour conditions, gender, and housing;

- 1909 Plan of Chicago: first comprehensive plan and vision for a city, presenting a clean, hospitable antidote to industrial squalor, and quadrupling of the lakefront that remains public today

In the United States there are all kinds of surveys, where people, doctors and physicians, were looking at the city to understand where all these diseases came from. They saw that typically the highest numbers were on the places of poor conditions. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, plans to ameliorate the cities emerged.

People were commissioning this plan, which was a big idea to improve the cities. Nature was very important

The Parks movement emerges

- where public green spaces were believed to improve the health of the people.

- Mid 19th century

- Europe and America

- Cementaries arrow redescovered green grounds arrow only green spaces that already existed

- Olmsted really important landscape architect leads to he inspired himself of the British garden

- Ideology of the public park was predicted on the importance of open, public green space to the health and vitality of urban populations

- Reaction to prevailing miasma theory of disease

- U.K: Select Committee on Public Walks, 1883

- France: Musée Sociale, 1894

- People started looking at existing places differently like cemeteries, as places that were very important for the city and could almost be used for recreational purposes.

Civilized Wilderness: The Politics and Parks of Frederick Olmsted

- Idea of the Central park in N.Y.C came form England

- o Frederick Law Olmsted was an architect who was very much informed by travels

- o he wanted to make it like in U.K. Here he saw a Birkenhead, which impressed him.

- o He believed that park was a very important component of the city.

New York

People didn't want to urbanize the whole Manhattan

- Park in the middle

- Really rocky area with not a lot of green

- Before the central park it was a more informal settlements of Afro-American and immigrants called Seneca Village

- with school and churches

- self-build houses

- really informal

Competition for Central Park (as not so interesting to develop) was won by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux to Commissioners Plan 1811 first plan

Image summary: a historical map of Central Park in New York City, depicted as a long rectangular green space surrounded by a grid of city streets and avenues. The central feature is the Croton Reservoir, a large body of water occupying the middle of the park. Other labeled landmarks include the Play Ground, West Meadows, and East Meadows, with a network of winding paths and roads connecting various areas. The park is bounded by 59th Street to the south, 110th Street to the north, Fifth Avenue to the east, and Eighth Avenue to the west.

- Very specific landscape design with a combination of atmospheres and experiences, as well as transmitting different views

• Lush Park and trees and water

• Ruff terrain

• A little pavilion in the landscape

• Landscape with monuments in the green for visual indication with an identity

- Urban Section to a modern urban park that was green and mobility was important

- Mobility through the park (east and west)

- Allow transversal crossing of central park by car

• All various forms of mobility are involved (horses, by foot, car etcetera)

• Bridges for crossing, steel constructions

- Precise reading if the topography, used to come up with an elaborate system of circulation within and crossing Central Park of

- Pedestrians

- Carriages and

- Heavier carriage systems

- Bridges with different architecture, so one could recognize them, became real features to points of identity

- So-called mall was an open-air reception of the city, and a terrace with a rather formal composition at the end

- Elongated tunnel with a very festive appearance leading to the terrace, contributing got the open-air reception of the city

- Meadow in the middle for sheep, today only for people

- Next to the meadow there was the ramble with twisted paths along a rocky landscape, where one could experience the landscape.

- Ravine conditioned by waterfalls, a massive rough bridge, etcetera

- Belvedere castle

- Manhattan grew along the greenery

Law Olmsted also invented the Park Way

- Very big and divided in 2 parts

- Central Driveway for pleasure travel

- 2 smaller side drives serving the houses

- right arrow in-between, green spaces with

- Pedestrian traffic

- Bicycle traffic

Image summary: A black and white photograph of aTREE-lined road where several people are cycling away from the viewer. The road is a light-colored path flanked by rows of tall, slender trees that create a canopy overhead.

→ gave the impression of being in a park-like environment

- Became very important in North American urban design

- Also used along the river but also connected different part of cities, connecting parks with park ways to keep the park-like environment.

Image summary: An aerial photograph of a residential neighborhood featuring a circular cul-de-sac with a central green island. The area is densely populated with large, mature green trees lining the streets and yards, with several houses and parked cars visible throughout the scene.

Boston, the Emerald Necklace by Olmest 1878

- Consisted of a necklace of green spaces to Connect all parks in a big urban project

- Idea was that in 10 years, it would feel like a nature-made place

- Connection of different elements through drives to green zones with diff. function:

- Franklin Park

Image summary: A historical map titled "Plan of Boston Park System: Common to Franklin Park," detailing a network of connected parklands and waterways in Boston. The map traces a continuous green path from the Boston Common in the east, extending west through various park spaces and ending at Franklin Park on the left. It identifies key landmarks and transit points, including the Charles River to the north and the Commonwealth Avenue Mall.

- (the biggest) created a green experience with a formal green space

- for Leisurely purposes (sporty) and formal reception areas: tennis fields and sports, large green open areas, all types of transit

- Already existed, and was for agriculture before

- Created an open meadow for animals but also leisure activities

- Harvard Arboretum

- Dense wooded urban environment

- Aboretum = collection of trees and plants, not for leisurely use, it is there for education purpose

- Jamaican Park

- Main feature was a pond (Water) which was already there with many points of entry

- Different entry points to the park and water, also points to observe water

- Wooded area created at the perimeter of the park

- Back-Bay Fence area

- Open sewer for Boston

- Reshaped and replanted by Olmsted which created a sort of valley with a river experience to river part of the city designed like a natural landscape

- Polluted part in Boston that are turned into a river part with a lot of nature

- Connected to the Boston Charles River with a mushier experience

The City Beautiful Movement: The Reform Aesthetics of Burnham

1. Part of the progressive social reform movement in North America

a. which improved the living conditions of people

b. cities where growing leads to but still wanted to improve the cities

2. Aimed to achieve a cultural parity with the cities of Europe. It tried to catch up with the grandness of European cities

3. Inspired the Beaux-Arts Movement developed at the Paris École Des Beaux-Arts

4. Basic premise: through reform of the urban landscape, together with policies in other sectors, it would be possible to control the problems caused by the growing population

a. There was a belief that a beautiful city would educate habitants to have a good social behavior.

b. Landscape makes people happier

c. Aesthetic interventions improve the wellbeing of citizens (Charles Mumford)

Daniel Hudson Burmham

- One of the early proponents of the city beautiful movement.

- Suggested a proposal for a wide city, where visitors would be shield from poverty and crime during the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago

- Very important formal axes at the bottom reflected with the statue basin and also everything around it

- Very important midway also with the idea of symmetry but surrounded by more diverse architecture. Considered an informal city center with restaurant, cafes, etcetera

- Landscape feature in-between made up of all kinds of greenery, water areas and small pavilions

- City beautiful would balance in 2 approaches

- Baroque urban principles (axiality, sequence, control)

- Neoclassical architecture

Washington

- Exploding enormously

- McMillan Plan one of the first designed to be realized within the city beautiful movement. Commissioned by a senator of Michigan called McMillan. McMillan Plan extended from the L'Enfant Plan

- Center remains the Mall but reshaped from a more victorious plan to a narrower and more controlled place (baroque principles). Buildings and monuments designed in a neoclassical way were added. Today known as the Capitol Hill.

- Based on axiality implies important factor

Image summary: A side-by-side comparison of two historical city planning maps for Washington, D.C. The left side shows L'Enfant Plan from 1791, a sketch depicting a grid of streets and building precincts along the Potomac River and Eastern Branch. The right side shows the McMillan Plan from 1901, a more detailed architectural layout emphasizing a river park system, waterfront quays, and the integration of Mount Vernon and Wardman Park.

Image summary: An aerial illustration of a large city layout featuring a dense grid of streets and buildings, divided by several wide diagonal boulevards and large green parks. The city is bordered by a river in the foreground, with bridges crossing the waterway and hills visible in the far distance.

- Plan extended into its surrounding, through buildings and necklace of green park spaces

- System of parks

- Several train infrastructures created to connect the city within itself.

- Civic infrastructures such as schools which were introduced in the denser areas of the city center to sub-centers

- System of streets

- Idea was to make the citizens more controlled and balanced like the architectural design

Chicago

- Here further experiments by Daniel Burham were made.

- “Plan of Chicago” was created, commissioned by the commercial club who wanted Chicago to grow so their commerce would flourish and grow. Suggested a set of principles:

Image summary: A historical architectural site plan or map depicting a symmetrical, geometric city layout adjacent to a river. The plan features a central axis with a series of structured gardens, plazas, and buildings arranged in agrid-like pattern, extending from the riverbank into a surrounding urban area.

Image summary: A black and white historical photograph of a grand, neoclassical building complex situated along a waterway. The architecture features multiple columns, pediments, and a large dome, with several flags flying from the roof. A stone bridge crosses the water in the foreground, and a paved promenade with railings runs along the water's edge.

- A series of green interconnected spaces to necklace of green spaces going through the city so citizens (adults and children) could take a walk through the neighborhoods

: An architectural rendering of a dense urban city block from an elevated, isometric perspective. The image shows a grid of large, multi-story rectangular buildings with red-toned roofs, interspersed with wide streets filled with small figures and a linear body of water flowing through the city.

- Elaborate system of boulevards connecting the entire city to all related to a civic center where main cultural institutions and administrations were connected

- allowed for the citizens to reach the city center rapidly

- designed in a neoclassical manner

- Big arteries entering the civic center to center could be reached by roads and trains above ground and by underground subways.

- Subway system superimposed with the street system

- Very dense system connecting railroads, subway connections and roads

- strong say in urban level of architecture

Canberra: The City Beautiful, Down Under

Australia was under British colonial rule for a long time. In 1909 the idea of a more independent unity was made. The capitol of this new independent nation state was located in Canberra. This was a new city that was created as this new town.

In order to plan this new city, the new government was making a document that was asking for competitive designs. This was supposed to rival London in population, Paris in beauty, Athens in culture and Chicago in enterprise. The competition's winners were selected, and the very known well architect (were also married) Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony were chosen. The city beautiful approach would be important in many of the plans suggested. Idea of the City Beautiful:

- Working with the topography and landscape features (river) to create an urban composition or an organic whole to lake formation (picture)

- Main axis related to a view on the mountains

- governmental axis with main civic institutions

- connected 2 peaks of mountains

Image summary: An overhead architectural or urban planning sketch depicting a complex city layout integrated with natural geography. The drawing features a grid of streets and radial avenues intersecting at several focal points, surrounding a central body of water and a series of circular plazas. The composition blends structured geometric planning with organic, shaded forms representing terrain and water.

- contained the judiciary (high court), legislative (Parliament) and executive (Capitol)

- Main axis related to other axes that had to do with agriculture, commerce, and residential centers

)]), Image summary: An architectural plan and section drawing from a competition entry by Griffin and Mahony, sourced from the National Library of Australia. The left side features a site map oriented toward Ainslie Peak and Bimberie Peak, with numbered markers 1, 2, and 3. The right side shows a cross-section through the monumental axes, with vertical lines linking the numbers on the map to their corresponding functions: 1 for the executive 'Capitol', 2 for the legislative (Parliament), and 3 for the judiciary (High Court).

- Project never fully realized. Left undone by architects.

- Never became the city with a large population as it was imagined. But did become the national city of power.

H.S V.L 10: The Extension of the European City: From the Viennese

Ringstasse to Amsterdam Zuid

During the late 19th century and the beginning of the 20th there was a rapid industrialization all over the world. With it came growing population and new infrastructure came into the city to be able to sustain this growth of population. Also, metros were introduced as well as station halls. Very often these structures were very large to Mobility is given a place in the city (underground network)

Barcelona

- Started very close to the harbor and was extended into a bastionated city

- City within started reaching its limits of densification

- outside the bastion (extramuros) implies very dense build neighbourhood

- to small streets and even built houses above ☐

Image summary: A black and white photograph capturing a view through a sequence of stone archways leading into a narrow, dim alleyway. The foreground arch frames the scene, revealing further arched structures and a cobblestone path that recedes into the distance, ending at a brightly lit opening.

Image summary: A black and white photograph of a narrow urban alleyway flanked by old, multi-story buildings. The scene is characterized by architectural elements such as small balconies and a stone archway that spans the street, creating a tunnel-like passage leading further into the city.

- Housing types gradually densified leading to very small streets

- Extended from the rampages into a bastionated city.

- New growing neighborhoods emerged to city went from small scale urban fabric to much denser one

Amsterdam

- Fan-shaped bastionated city with new extensions outside of the old city containing

• Hospitals

• Museums

• New factories

- Low rise of the urban fabric

- Fortifications are a place where new functions were planned

- For example, prison, park and museums

- Fortification Lost their usual function

Old Delhi

- Also dense structure with a fortification

- Rapid growth

- New parts of the city growing outside of bastionated city

: An antique map titled PLAN von WIEN, depicting the city of Vienna divided into several colored administrative or judicial districts, labeled with letters such as R, B, and P. The map features detailed topographic lines and street layouts, with a legend in the bottom right corner identifying the various districts.

- Not an organic expansion arrow Political decision that it should expand arrow should become a capitol

Vienna, General plan with the historical city in walls with bastions, a zone

Il defons Cerda: Towards a General Theory of Urbanization

- Engineer who started thinking about extension of the city in a rational way

- Proposition:

Image summary: a historical map of Delhi, India, featuring the city's layout with various districts highlighted in red and yellow. The map shows the Yamuna River flowing along the right side and identifies regions such as Firozabad, Ancient Delhi, and Old Delhi, with a network of roads and landmarks distributed across the urban and rural landscape.

• Extension based on the idea of City Beautiful with axes and very organized

First plans: suburbs and roads

Developing the first plans, he started to make proposals in a rational way in the foundation and by thinking what was needed, like

how much air and space people in Barcelona needed?

• Cerda draw a plan:

○ Starts with a investigation of a dense structure

Combination of a baroque city with formal connections between

important places with a grided city

System with urbanisation, based on the topography

City more open, not so dense anymore

○ More room for transportation

○ Homes naturally ventilated

- Barcelona Plan:

• Composed of 900 city blocks or manzanas and big avenues

- Everybody would have equal living conditions to same access to a school, parc, etcetera

- City center not in the old city anymore but rather in the middle of the extension.

- Manzanas not completely closed, more like perimeter block opened at 2 sides or sometimes 1 side.

- Middle would be green and publicly accessible

Image summary: An architectural site plan diagram labeled Detalle Geometricos de la Planta de las Manzanas 51, 52 y 53 que tiene en construccion la Sociedad Fomento del Ensanche de Barcelona. The plan displays a symmetrical layout of two large city blocks separated by a central street, featuring internal courtyards and subdivided plots organized within a grid of intersecting streets.

- Stanford corners with a 45 degree cut leads to needed to respect the turning radius, due to heavy traffic leads to carriages should be able to turn rapidly

○ Important architects designed their buildings playing with the 45 degrees

- Blocks about 130x130m with housing with a depth of 20m

- Sometimes green spaces worked with one another which allowed for sunlight and ventilation

• Streets 20m wide with 5m for pedestrians on each side

- Streets for trams and carriages but also new sewage systems under the pedestrians' 5m, and electricity

• Sectors: wards with 25 blocks with different infrastructure such as schools, shops, etcetera

Image summary: An architectural cross-section drawing detailing an urban street layout with an integrated subsurface sewage system. The diagram shows a street level populated with figures, horses, carriages, and trees, while below the surface, a network of curved conduits and larger cistern-like chambers are depicted to facilitate the exportation of water through main streets.

4 wards combined = district implies allowed to think about public provision

- Cerda summarized his ideas in a publication, which suggested what was being made in Barcelona could be applied to other cities too.

- Different urban production could also be designed like a factory to allowed to go from little town to metropolis >→ less than / City grew and started making connections with neighboring towns Open perimeter blocks became closed, densifying the dwelling space enormously to Densification caused problems to idea of green spaces was left out with sometimes buildings being in the middle of the manzanas. to in the 20th century there was a program to reclaim these spaces for public green spaces and make them accessible from the public domain again

Camilo Sitte: Artistic Principles for the Expanding City - Vienna

- From the beginning of the 29th century was creating developments with the historical city being isolated with an open ring around it to peripheral development that grew rather unplanned

- “We need to urbanise according to the artistic principles”

- Sitte wanted a more qualitative approach to the city, thinking about the quantity and particularly the public spaces of the city, recapturing the qualitative architectural dimensions.

- He studies Pompeii and tried to understand its architecture

- Talked about the relationship between buildings, monuments, and squares

- Believed squares should be open to develop important “vistas”

- Believed well-defined squares with important monuments and infrastructures surrounding them were the best

- he was a thinker implies influential until today

Otto Wagner: The Architecture of the Grossstadt

- Architect who planed Vienna

- Believed they had to think at a larger scale with realistic architecture but also think about mobility!

- Not much concerned with ornamentation but rather concentrated on a modern city with subways, streets, water, etcetera

- Not concentrated on single buildings but rather an architecture that contributed to the bigger architecture of the city

• Had many projects on the Ringstrasse

- Idea of a rational system for transportation

- Became most known for the Wiener Stadtbahn

• Sort of metro line under and above ground

- Believed it would create focal points or “Stellen” of urban design (where two cross one another) to infrastructure (train is on the viaduct underneath you can walk)

Image summary: A historical map of Vienna, titled Plan der Reichshaupt- und Residenzstadt WIEN, featuring an overview layout called Ubersichtsplan. The map depicts the city and its surroundings with various labeled districts identified by Roman numerals, such as IV, VII, and XX. It specifically highlights the ring roads, referred to as Gurtelstrassen, and denotes multiple circles with a 1 kilometer radius marking specific locations.

- Believed it was important to focus on particular points of the city, where human activity would take place with different functions

- Wagner developed urban architecture to articulate these “Stellen”

- Architecture of bridges, stations, etcetera, which used the modern material iron and with defined and explicit architectural expression

○ Also dams and water works

- He developed a prefabricated system to make the underground stations which could be adapted to different cities.

- In his books he talked about the everyday Architecture of the city, so everything that was not architecture

• Started making a more neutral, realistic architecture, which would not be as big as a single building but rather a contribution to a bigger square

- His idea for the new Vienna was the Grossstadt, which was determined by its infrastructure and the everyday architecture, such as districts, centers, etcetera

- He planned on different Bezirke, making them nondependent of the old city center - Like Cerda to thinking of public provisions

- Each district would have a main center with a Hauptplatz with the main public buildings and spaces.

- Districts would be divided into smaller entities with public spaces and public infrastructure

Image summary: An architectural site plan for the XXII. Wiener Gemeinde-Bezirk, depicting a symmetric, gridded urban layout. The text specifies the area as 648 hectares, 50% built-up, with approximately 30,000 apartments for approximately 45,000 residents.

Figure s summary: An archival page containing German text and two black and white illustrations of Venice. The first illustration is a top-down architectural site plan of the area around S. Marco and the Piazza, labeled "Venedig. I. V. S. Marco, R. Planatz." The second illustration is an etched landscape showing the Piazza San Marco, featuring the Campanile bell tower, the Doge's Palace, and columns in the foreground, labeled "Fig. 8. Venedig: Die Piazza."

Hendrik Petrus Berlage: The Reconfiguration of the Modern City

Hendrik Berlage studied at E.T.H.Z. Around 19th hundred, he made the extension of the city, taking a radical point of departure due to the housing problem which he believed could be solved with mass production, by going back to housing blocks, but at a larger scale.

- He looked at Paris and asked himself what could be equivalent in Amsterdam.

- At that time, he designed bigger buildings and a new sort of building as in a new scale to a new scale and a new material (bricks) to he introduced to a new idea of what a new city was

- He was invited to make a big extension of Amsterdam and change the city substantially

- First thing was an extension (in yellow) taking the water structure into account as well as having a garden city approach to not dense enough

Image summary: A vintage city map of Amsterdam depicting the urban layout with red blocks representing built-up areas and yellow areas indicating streets and open spaces. The map shows the network of canals and roads, with the river Amstel labeled on the right side and a legend at the bottom identifying various city landmarks and districts.

- He later tried to extend the existing building (in brown) with large axes and perimeter blocks (in red) with generous green spaces like parks and smaller green areas in between

○ Clear geometrical system

- o Along the axes were big blocks with a big collective dimension, which contributed to the whole city

○ Followed the idea of Sitte for the well-defined public spaces

- The group of buildings were various apartments with interesting lighting and balconies on both sides to round sometimes

- Were about social housing but were built in a very mobile architecture with interesting details completely out of brick, and interesting corners with shops

- Soon would be combined with public infrastructures like schools and churches, and contributed to the public spaces

- Underline the whole collective block but also underline individuality

right arrow design was based on the existing

Image summary: An isometric architectural diagram of a red masonry building complex arranged in a U-shaped configuration around a central courtyard. The structure consists of multiple multi-story wings with repetitive window patterns, featuring a prominent tower with a pointed spire at one corner and a lower, dark-roofed section wrapping around the front entrance area.

Image summary: An architectural site plan titled VEREENIGINGSBOUW IN ZUID BY HET NOORDER AMSTELKANAAL with a scale of 1 to 1000. The technical drawing illustrates a symmetrical residential layout of multi-story blocks surrounding open courtyards and a central focal point, bordered by streets and the Amstelkanaal canal at the bottom.

- In other parts of the city same principles were applies but the form changed and double blocks also emerged to living and public combined

- These experimentations were made of freestanding buildings, perimeter blocks as well as a qualitative architecture on the large and small scale

- Berlage not only designed buildings but also bridges and skyscrapers making them part of this new urban planning

Eliel Saarinen: Turning the Town into the Metropole

Helsinki was a small town in the 18th hundred

- Old town was extended with Munkkiniemi-Haaga

- Saarinen followed on the footsteps of Berlage but decided that the city would have different housing typologies and not only city blocks introduction of a variation on housing typologies.

- Introduction of smaller scale housing in combination with high-rise perimeter block.

Image summary: A city planning map for Stor-Helsingfors / Suur-Helsingin, showing a conceptual urban layout of Helsinki with orange-shaded developed areas interspersed with green spaces and blue water bodies.

Image summary: A side-by-side comparison of a planned architectural development. The left side is a top-down site plan showing a curved residential layout with individual plots and green spaces. The right side is a perspective artist's rendering of the same development, depicting a series of multi-story buildings arranged in a curved formation overlooking a body of water.

- He searched for a middle ground between the character of a town and the necessities of a metropolis

Expanding the Colonial City: New Delhi and Edwin Lutyens

Delhi was extended, because of colonial conditions to was becoming more and more important for the British empire. The British government commission British architects to plan an extension of Delhi as it was becoming more important for them.

- 1910 new extension plan almost doubling or tripling the original Delhi

- Very rigid grid was made and changed into a sort of pattern of diagonals of 60 degrees or 30 degrees, in which a central axis as the center of the diagonal grid system.

- City was extended by roads as there was the idea of it being motorized

Image summary: A layout plan map of New Delhi, specifically showing the area from the Government center to Purana Kila. The map illustrates a radial urban design featuring major landmarks including the Railway Station, City Extension Area, Great Place, Cathedral, and Amphitheatre. Geographic boundaries include a Ridge reserved for wild animals to the west and a river to the east, with the Old City located to the north.

- Network of interconnected roads for 6 thousand vehicles simultaneously

- Main axis was an axis of roads but also gardens creating a monumental entity

- Central axis laid out in relation to topography

- Secretary building, where the colonial administration was located at the first change of topography. At the very top was the house of the governor to highest political power in the colonial regime

- Extention was for the british to Bigger plots were developed (villas) while staff were in compact plots

Image summary: A black and white architectural site plan for a city center layout. The plan is organized around a central axis running north to south, featuring a large central Garden, two symmetric Park areas, and a Great Place. Key labeled locations include the Military Secretary, Staff Quarters, and Parliament Street. The urban design utilizes a radial pattern with avenues like North Avenue and Queen Mary Avenue intersecting at circular plazas and nodes. A scale of feet is provided at the bottom.

Bungalos and main elements of the plan

V.L 01: The City, Urban Design and the Long 20th Century

The 20th century

 Urbanization become really important  growth intensity is different in every area for e.g Asia and Africa grew in Urban population while Europe stayed the same

Work and climate started to become bigger leads to many elements play a role >→ less than / brought a set of challenges that were unprecedented for urban design:

1. Urbanization

2. Housing and public space

3. Prefabrication, automobility and mass consumption

4. Wars and reconstruction

5. Cold war symbolism

6. Democratization and emancipation

7. Deindustrialization

8. Environmental concerns

9. Professionalization

- Charles Jencks tried to create solutions to these challenges to but its very broad

1st Challenge: Urbanization as social and spatial matter

Planetary urbanization sparked in the 20th century

- Living in an urban condition became a reality in the 20th and 21st centuries

- Urbanization in the non-western world increased dramatically

- Urban growth was sometimes stronger and faster than in the western world

→ growing urbanization as a social phenomenon. Due to people living densely together and needing infrastructure like public and private infrastructure, water, electricity, etcetera

London

- Corn sized city that rapidly exploded during the 20th century, due to industrialisation. City with millions of people by the end of the 20th century.

- New concepts like metropolis, megalopolis, etcetera were being thought out by urban designers

- Urban fabric was changing by adding new typologies like skyscrapers. Typologies and morphologies were changing

- Ongoing urbanization often created prosperity and progress and Unequality

- unequal urbanization with poverty to Slums grew

- poverty grew

- inequality and exclusion in the form of slums, shantytowns, etcetera grew

"Planet of Slums – Mike Davis" leads to unstable conditions are created

2nd Challenge: Housing and Public Space

- Population grew in the 20th century implies dwelling needs and aspiration changed

- necessity for good and affordable housing

- necessity for public space

- City grew out of city walls, due to the need of creating extra housing for the growing population

- In between zone became the Rigstrasse by Otto Wagner to connects the two realities

- New perimeter blocks with decent and qualitative housing but not the typical architecture in Vienna

- 20th century: question of offering decent and affordable housing remained

London

- Rabenhof Siedlung was initiated by the city to decent housing and public spaces in the 20th century

- Second half of the 19th century: poor living conditions for workers and crowded public spaces

- Especially for workers

• Very crowded streets and spaces

- New housing typologies (landhouse which is divided into 4 parts or gallery-flats) made for the laboring class to Model houses could be combined into larger urban projects.

- Inventing new house typologies for collectiv living

- 20th century: large housing projects developed with good living conditions, public spaces and giving a certain outlook of the city leads to London country council leads to boundary street estate

Zürich

• Bigger blocks with descent living

- Every room has natural light

- Open air, ventilation space as staircase

- Sanitary facilities

- Population growing dramatically leads to question of decent housing emerged

- “Blockrand” buildings developed as first reaction to provide a lot of housing and certain urban fabric to known as perimeter blocks with collective or working functions

- End of 20th century: providing housing very important

- Oerlikon, old factories developed into housing units

- Public spaces emerged, such as the Oerliker Park

- Alternative forms of housing developed. Question of housing interrelates to functions:

○ Commercial functions

○ Collective spaces

○ Mobility infrastructure

• Kalkbreite cooperative to Genossenschaft

- o Families are diverse: families, single parent families, cluster wohnungen, singles, flat sharing, shops, restaurants, Pensions

- Middle with a collective space combined with public infrastructure the tram depot

3rd Challenge: The second industrial revolution (prefabrication, automobility and mass consumption)

- The second industrial revolution is believed to have started in the middle of the 19th century with the Bessemer process, allowing for new building technologies leading to new typologies like steel skyscrapers which could not have existed without the Bessemer process

- Rationalization of work processes became an important way of thinking in urban design ex. Process steel (Bessemer process) as well as Prefabrication

• Skyscrapers

- Urban design is changing, and new typologies are happening, because now skyscraper can be constructed

- New urban typologies for living and other functions like office

- Frederick Winslow

• Walter Gropius

- Prefabricated element to build housing

○ Rational and economically and prefabricated elements to built cities  Taylorist thinking

• For example "das neue Frankfurt"

• Cheap acesseble housing (economical way of building)

• Actor of the car  Ford

- o a very big effect on factories to which revolutionized the city and urban design. bc mass production of cars filled the cities leading to new elements for the city

○ Not carriages anymore now we have automobility in 1915

○ Car had big effect on public spaces to had an omnipresence

- Challenge for urban design, motor-, carways and highways

■ Cars have to be housed in the city to indoor and outdoor parkings

■ Presence of the car became more and more important, even changing the urban fabric of cities to bigger streets and crosssections

○ They also had a big impact in new typologies

• New shopping Mall, in Soutfield Michigan

- From the idea of selling and buying through automotive traffic and mass consumption, the shopping center emerged

○ It happened in the combination with the car

4th Challenge: World Wars, and the Reconstruction of the city

- Affected territories through wars leads to cities damages socially and spatially

- Cities completely erased like Rotterdam, Hiroshima, or Le Havre

- Question on how to rebuild the cities emerged

Dilemma: rebuild like the original or create new city?

o Rotterdam fight against modernists and traditionalist leads to modernist won

Hiroshima was socail and phisically destroyed

○ Le Havre leads to city was destroyed in the center leads to new way of designing the city

5th Challenge: The Urban Symbolism of the Cold War

- Cold war was mainly a symbolic war (still had proper wars as well) to Nato (U.S.A) versus Warsaw Pact (U.S.S.R)

- Urban design affected by Cold War, which was rather symbolic

- Discussion on how to modernize cities emerged

- Western and eastern block was different. to Ex. West Berlin: Kongresshalle representing technology big meeting space

- How to modernize the dwelling environment and how to modernize architecture

- Berlin: different urban intervention in both sides of the wall. Congress Halle had a western idea of modernity

6th Challenge: Democratization and Emancipation

- Idea of citizens having a say became more and more important

- Citizens can also say how the urban design has to be

- Before normal people didn have a voice only monarchy or important people

- Maison Dominos in Brussels by Le Corbusier created an opportunity for citizens to contribute to the built environment

• It was a prototyp for the mass production of housing

- Basic frame was provided, citizens could construct their own houses according to own needs and liking

- John Habraken developed the idea urban designers could working together on the initial design with habitants and in the long run

• Dutch architect

• Neighborhoods with diversity in the facades

• Support leads to 25 minus 100 years are made for many years for the city

• Infill leads to by the inhabitants itself

- Idea of democracy of culture, leger, and education

- Mille Club Program where youth of local communities would build their own youth clubs to Government provided do it yourself kits

- Idea of emancipation would become more important in the 20th century. Cultural institutions were no longer exclusive for the upper class but rather democratic, offering a simultaneously cultural and public space

• Centre Pompidou, Paris

• Museu de Arte, Sao Paolo

7th Challenge: From “Steel Belt” to “Rust Belt” (De-industrialization and the Urban Terrains Vagues)

- Many vacant industrial sites in the U.S + the town that were right beside the site, because workers left with/after the industry to also the case in U.K like Manchester

- Question on how to urbanize industrialized sites

8th Challenge: Limits to Growth (Environmental Concerns and the City)

- Limited number of resources became an important question, as well as how resources were not in sync with one another

- 1960s and 1970s: environmental concern became a big societal and urban concern

• Limited growth

• Urban designers forced to react to the environment

9th Challenge: Professionalization of urban design

- Urban design forced to professionalize at a very high speed to becoming an interdisciplinary field of knowledge - Beginning of 20th century: urban design still a discipline connected to individual people, groups, etcetera

- Becomes increasingly a professionalized discipline trying to develop knowledge, and becomes gradually institutionalized in state administrations, etcetera

- Beginning of 20th century: start to develop knowledge and research to many important publications on urban design, which generate and distribute knowledge on the urban design for a larger group of people in the German speaking world

- Big organizations develop like the Musée Social (Paris) which tried to generate knowledge on urban design

- People from many different fields, who thought about what urban design should be, what it should become, etcetera

- Aimed for more open and green spaces and developed maps for parks in the city where people could do sport, enjoy the open air in dense Paris, etcetera

- Developed new urban figures, like new streets, boulevards, etcetera which often had green elements

- Perimeter blocks combined with green squares, then combined with streets

Housing and the Industrial City: From Speculative to Cooperative

- Late 19th century, beginning 20th century

- Era of the second industrial revolution.

○ Growth of railways

○ Industry (machinery)

- Manufacturing

- New advancements in manufacturing and production technology

○ Era of new inventions like the Bessemer Process for steel production

- o technological systems such as the telegraph, the railroad, gas, water supply networks, and sewage systems

- Manufacturing (prefabricating parts) will change the thinking of the people, making train roads, sewing as difference

- Spark of industrialization where resources (gold and oil) and railroads were placed.

○ In E.U same happened

○ But also textile and chemical industries were imported. Crossroads

○ Not only resources like gold and oil also agricultural

• Between 1850 & 1925:

- commercial cultivation of wheat and cotton leads to taken from fertile regions

- network of railroad infrastructure grew rapidly, so it could be exported

- Cities in these places became important centers of industry

○ India, Agriculture and Railways

○ Speculative Housing for Worker

- Cities started to grow, and large metropolis emerged in relation to the second industrial revolution.

- ☐ Inhabited by labor forces close to the factories

- Question on how to house big labor forces emerged

- steam engines operated by workers

- Although it was about labor, the people had to be housed

1. Speculative Housing for Workers

developed by private people that looked at housing as a sort of investment.

→ Pragmatic Housing of Mumbai Textile Mill and The Chawls

- Mumabi adapted to an industrial capital by:

• Building new shipping railways/infrastructure

- Extending the city

- Mumbai as center of cotton trade

• Close to Suez Canal  A important strategic place

• Connection between England and India trough Suez Canal

- Due to Civil War cotton import from U.S to England stopped to India became a very important producer and importer

- India became main producer and importer of Cotton in the world especially Bombei

- Due to civil war

- Large structures developed big docks for cotton transporting ships

- Cotton was treated in mills (are bigger factories)

• Mills where all over

- Cotton mills became dominant in Mumbai.

- Flow of laborers came to the cities, as manual labor was needed despite the spinning and weaving machine

- Due to flow of laborers leads to new housing typology emerged called Chawl

○ which was developed by private investors (mill owners leads to the british and investors)

- o Around 1911, ca 80% of Mumbai's population lived in Chawls.

○ Originally thought for male workers but eventually developed for entire families

○ 4 to 5 stories tall and extremely small

○ Ground floor: Wood and stone

- o Ground floor: Often commercial

- o Usually surrounded around a courtyard

Image summary: An isometric architectural diagram showing a dense cluster of white building blocks. One central building is highlighted in orange, featuring an interior courtyard. Red lines and labels indicate a location on Jagannath Shankar Seth Road and Di NN Shah Lane.

○ 2 parallel housing blocks and one inner courtyard. Each side with 8 to 10 housing units accessed through a sort of balcony around the courtyard with a central stair

About 16 dwelling units on each platform

○ Each floor had common bathrooms

Balconies were used as access but also became an extension of the housing unit, where everyday activities took place like hanging up clothes.

○ Modell of spectral housing

Image summary: A photograph looking down a narrow, multi-story internal courtyard of a densely packed apartment complex. The residential buildings feature open-air corridors with railings on several levels, with colorful laundry hanging from the balconies and lines across the space.

N.Y.C Tenement Housing Reform: Housing the Working Classes in the North American Metropolis

- Beginning of 20th century: industrial development sparked following the civil war.

• Clothing sweat-shops in downtown manhatten where the labour conditions were really bad

• Clothing, menswear, metal products, printing manufacturing industries emerged in the city.

People lived in tenement housing, where they could rent a bed/floors and sleep in hammock canvas for 7 cents

- Very crowded conditions of living due to development of the city to Commissioners grid plots were developed by private investors

- leading to tenement housing.

- Street view of tenement houses in N.Y.C, ca 1905 to should just be for one family (but wasn't like that)

- Very elongated apartments inhabited by many people at the same time to very dense urban fabric

- Initial idea was to build tenement housing around courtyards and keeping the blocks open

○ but in the beginning of 20th century, courtyards became urbanized

- leading to almost no light and air left in the interior courtyards

- Jacob Riis, an immigrant from Denmark, criticized the living conditions of the workers and made a critical assessment of the tenement houses.

• Book: “How the Other Half lives”

- He initiated the Tenement House Committee that started making maps showing the density of the city to 15times denser than Zurich nowadays

- The highest density was found where the factories were located

- 1901: Tenement House Act to led to requirements and regulations (to put an end to poor build buildings):

- minimum requirements for the amount of light received by living quarters

○ every room should have a window to the outside

- courtyards

• increased fire safety regulations

- ☐ installation of fire safeguards

• more ventilation

- courtyards

○ proper ventilation systems

○ every room should have a window to the outside

- building height restrictions

Blockrand in Zürich: A dense and multi-functional type for the labor classes

- Well located in terms of transport and located in the middle of E.U

- From the outside it looks respectable but inside they often lived in dense spaces

2. Visionary Towns for Companies and Industry

→ Port Sunlight: Green Company Town of Housing and Collective Spaces

- Liverpool was an industrial center located very close to coal fields and also at the crossing of railroads

- Big factories started emerging like the Port Sunlight soap factory, owned by the Lever brothers.

- Lever brothers wanted to create housing for the workers and improve their living conditions and have them close to where they needed to work.

William Lever wanted a model worker's town different to the already existing villages, so that it could provide and image of how the working class could live in the future

He believed new model would create new relations between the workers and the employers

wanted a way of living together that reminded to the hand labor

○ a brotherhood everyone helps each other in the (cristian) community

○ every has a nice house good d'welling

- Port Sunlight:

- The urban pattern followed the topography of the site and the ground that was moshy

- A series of semi-detached houses aligned in smaller blocks with front and backyards

- ☐ Looked like village houses

• Gardens

- Allotment gardens in the middle of the blocks, where people could cultivate food for their own subsistence

○ so every house had a “productive” garden

○ terrain of green spaces that draines to became park-like places or legality activities spaces

• two main axes in the urban fabric

- first lead to the church

- second boulevard/axe has a lot of public places (Bath, Museum, libraries, theater)

- The houses were designed by different architects.

- ☐ they were trying to create a sort of diversity

○ but also consistency + uniformity achieved by defining 7 materials that could be used

- ☐ Tudor revival style:

• Brick (Ruabon)

• Roughcast (grey, white, or yellow)

- Tile

• Slate

- Beams (brown or green)

• Plaster (white)

• Sandstone (red)

- Port Sunlight became very important model for worker villages

- o Inspired one of first journals about urban design and town planning

Cité Industrielle: Tony Garnier's new balance between dwelling and industry

- Tony Garnier, born in Lyon 1869 (-1948)

- Porpused a new urban plan for the fast growing city of Lyon – the Cité industrielle à Town near all kinds of networks and mines

- Inspired by the socialist Utopian ideas of Fourier

- o idea was that workers should have the best conditions of living

- o based on his believes in the basic goodness of man: good spirit, goodness of man, good soul of men

- o a good Cité: no law court, no police force, no jail, or church

- o Industry and residency is clearly divided

- o He believed in the healthy body to so people should be able to do sports in social spaces

- Developed in several steps and zones:

- o Industrial zone where all industries were

- o Dwelling zone

- o Health zone

- Center of the city = administrative center

- o public spaces are provided

- o where people could collect

- He thought about the residential city in 2 parts: public buildings and residential areas related to administration and transport

- o Buildings were meant as public spaces where people could meet

- o Smaller collective functions such as schools to low-scaled but also connected to public spaces where people could meet

- o Vocational schools leads to high quality, free and equal education

- o Very good health care facilities located in pavilions and combined in a bigger campus

- o Sport infrastructures made to contribute to the well-being of citizens

- o City lacked religious places and police stations.

- Blocksize: 30m x 120x

- o Qualitative dwellings organized in a sort of grid with ground-bound single-family houses. (Also, middle-rise apartments)

- o houses should be built in concrete, representing the industrial era.

- o Houses located in loose way

- o No fences nor borders around the buildings.

- o Private and public radically re-thought. The city belongs to everybody.

- o Industry grid very strictly connected to the water. He designed hydroelectric hydro stations. Technical process was very celebrated.

3. The Cooperative Model

→ Gross-Zürich and its housing Cooperatives: Alternative projects for dwelling and industry

- Beginning of 20th century:

- many people went to live in Z.H leads to which led to a huge demand of housing leads to outstretched the housing supply of the city leads to big apartment shortage

- people started to criticize the speculative housing (Blockrand)

• Blockrand = development of expensive apartment

• made by private investors

- Labor movement demanding better housing

debates what alternative forms of worker-houses could be

○ 1911 to they organized important exhibitions to search for proposals for new solutions for housing problem

○ Inspired people to start thinking in an alternative way

• 1918 leads to competition for “Gross Zürich”

design competition where people thought about Blockrand areas and broader settlements

○ 2. Price for “Gross Zürich”, the idea of the garden city is re-appearing

- Cooperatives

- new network (like trams) connecting even outer parts of the city

- people in the periphery can reach factories implies trough network

- new settlements trough network

- Cooperatives started developing new settlements in the green and in the periphery

- Many people joined and founded cooperatives, of which they became stakeholders

• They built houses and rented them to members

- Value of land was not increased every time an apartment was sold to with shareholders you didn't need to follow the market logics, which is why the rents stayed stable

• The typology of those:

- ☐ more communal spaces.

- every block is surrounded by a garden

- used productively

- today leisurely

- different example is the Friesenberg Siedlung

○ Single-family-homes that are semiattached

- o Same idea of the productive garden

- Emil Klöti developed the “Red Zürich” and promoted construction of affordable housing

- 1907 onwards: he became the municipal council of Z.H and Z.H housing cooperatives

- He received financial support from the municipal government and thus became important for the development of housing in Z.H

• Early 20th century: new housing was developed

- Low-rise collective housing in a very green landscape

- Apartments often quite spacious with decent kitchen and decent toilet.

- Allotment gardens for the inhabitants to contribute to their subsistence. Today they no longer exist but green collective spaces were kept.

- This model of living in the green was very different from the Blockhaus model from a few years back

4. The State Model

greater than → less than /le Red Vienna's Superblocks, 1920

- Next to speculative housing, owners of factories, cooperative housing, there was also a model where the state was the main actor.

- Turn of the 20th century: housing crisis in Vienna due to people moving to the city and due to W.W.1

- People started building their own houses in the periphery leading to wild settlements

- Sometimes cooperative movements tried to gather people to build more solid and settler colonies with bought materials.

- 1921: New Idea of the Siedlungsamt-wanting to expand Vienna w/ decent housing

Allocating land

• Distributing building

• simple houses should be self-build by the citizens themselves

Again productive gardens

Margatera Schütte-Lithotzký and Adolf Loos led the Siedlungsamt between 1921 and 1924, questioning the periphery:

○ how to move the self-constructed homes

○ how to construct more qualitative housing to take their place

they provided housing models w/ qualitative public space/garden to the cooperative associations

- 1926: State took new strategy – 'Gemeindebauten'

New strategy, since self-built housing didn't keep up

• Mayor, a social democrat, launched big taxes 'Breitener Steuer'

to develop big housing estates called 'Gemeindebauten'

the rich paying for the poors housing

• Gemeindebauten

○ provided thousands of dwellings

○ placed in city-center

Porous perimeter blocks

○ with collective open spaces such as courtyards (green, calm spaces)

Public services, collective services and open spaces are offered for a better, cheaper, collective living

• Rabenhof-Siedlung:

○ big urban complex

■ retaught the figure of the perimeter block but was open to sort of open labyrinthian continuous urban fabric of enclosed and open public collective spaces

• new concept fit into the already existing perimeter structure of the existing city

• many dwellings and around were:

• Karl-Marx-Hof:

• qualitative collective public and green spaces

collective facilities and social services

• cultural facilities and everyday facilities

• Idea that workers should live in the city with green and qualitative spaces

• Encloses a courtyard creating a certain collective quality

• Monumentalizes worker houses

• Dwellings had balcony and very green spaces around it

• Collective inner spaces

• Celebrated the idea of the Gemeinde of the State and also the idea of providing decent working houses

F.S V.L 02: Housing and the Industrial City: From Speculative to

Cooperative

- Late 19th century, beginning 20th century

- Era of the second industrial revolution

○ Growth of railways

○ Industry (machinery)

- Manufacturing

- New advancements in manufacturing and production technology

○ Era of new inventions like the

: Figure 2 summary: A map of the United States in 1890 illustrating industrial development. The map uses purple shading to denote coal mining areas and yellow shading for gold and silver mining. Symbols mark locations of iron or steel mills, oil and gas drilling, textile manufacturing, and sites of industrial conflict. A network of major railroads is overlaid across the country, connecting these industrial hubs.

- Bessemer Process for steel production

○ technological systems such as the telegraph, the railroad, gas, water supply networks, and sewage systems

- Manufacturing (prefabricating parts) will change the thinking of the people, making train roads, sewing as difference

- Spark of industrialization where resources (gold and oil) and railroads were placed

○ In E.U same happened

○ But also textile and chemical industries were import

○ Not only resources like gold and oil but also agricultural

• Between 1850 & 1925:

- commercial cultivation of wheat and cotton

- network of railroad infrastructure grew rapidly, so it could be exported

○ Cities in these places became important centres of industry leads to India

○ Speculative Housing for Worker

- Cities started to grow, and large metropolis emerged in relation to the second industrial revolution to needs labour

- Question on how to house big labour forces emerged

- Although it was a about labour, the people had to be housed

- o Attitudes on how to solve housing problem emerged

1. Speculative Housing for Workers

developed by private people that looked at housing as a sort of investment

→ Pragmatic Housing of Mumbai Textile Mill and The Chawls

- Mumbai adapted to an industrial capital by:

• Building new shipping railways/infrastructure

- Extending the city

- Mumbai as centre of cotton trade

• Close to Suez Canal to important strategic place

• Connection between England and India trough Suez Canal

- Due to Civil War cotton import from U.S to England stopped to India became a very important producer and importer

- India became main producer and importer of Cotton in the world

- Due to civil war

- Large structures developed big docks for cotton transporting ships

- Cotton was treated in mills (are bigger factories)

• Mills where all over

- Cotton mills became dominant in Mumbai

- Flow of labourers came to the cities, as manual labour was needed despite the spinning and weaving machine

- Due to flow of labourers leads to new housing typology emerged called Chawl

- which was developed by private investors (mill owners and investors).

- o Around 1911, ca 80% of Mumbai's population lived in Chawls

- Originally thought for male workers but eventually developed for entire families

○ 4 to 5 stories tall and extremely small

○ Ground floor: Wood and stone

- o Ground floor: Often commercial

○ Usually surrounded around a courtyard

○ 2 parallel housing blocks and one inner courtyard. Each side with 8 to 10 housing units accessed through a sort of balcony around the courtyard with a central stair

- About 16 dwelling units on each platform

○ Each floor had common bathrooms

: Architectural site map of a city district featuring a dense grid of buildings and streets. Various building blocks are highlighted in orange and gray, each labeled with a number, indicating specific sites of interest or study across the urban layout.

Image summary: An isometric line drawing of a multi-story building complex with pitched roofs, showing a built-up area of 2429 square meters.

(1) $ \underline{4} $ $ \underline{200} $ $ \underline{400} $ $ \underline{1000} $ (m)

Programme

Image summary: An architectural exploded axonometric diagram illustrating a building's program. The diagram separates the structure into distinct functional layers: a blue ground floor dedicated to commercial use with store windows facing the road, several levels of yellow residential units above, a purple section for shared services, and a red block for institutional use.

The road facing units on the ground floor are dedicated to commercial purposes, their stone windows fronting the road, the rest of the units are residential.

Image summary: A series of four 3D architectural diagrams illustrating the evolution of building masses over time, mapped to a timeline with markers for 1930 and 2016. The diagrams show a transition from simpler, uniform block structures in 1930 to more complex, multi-leveled buildings in 2016, with different shades of green used to distinguish various structural sections or volumes.

Balconies were used as access but also became an extension of the housing unit, where everyday activities took place like hanging up clothes.

○ Modell of spectral housing

Apart from the original Klutchi Bnatics, inhabitants include Marworis, Gujarots and Maharashitians.

➔ Blockrand in Zürich: A dense and multi-functional type for the labour classes

- Well located in terms of transport and located in the middle of E.U

- Small factories developed outside of the city (in Aussersihl)

- Beginning 20th century: enormous explosion of population. Contours of Z.H expanded and several neighborhoods were annexed.

- Blockrand emerged from a new

।Image summary: A stacked area chart showing the population growth (Bevölkerung) from 1830 to 1920 for Zurich and several incorporated outer districts, including Wiedikon, Aussersihl, Riesbach, and Enge. The chart demonstrates a steady increase in total population starting from approximately 25,000 in 1830 and rising sharply after 1880 to exceed 200,000 by 1920.

“Neues Baugesetz für Ortschaften mit städtischen Verhältnissen” to this regulation allowed densification in certain parts of the city

- Larger perimeter blocks emerged with mixed functions: living, dwelling, and working

• Dense model with public spaces in the middle

- Often had small units

• At the bottom commercial services

• Small industries, workspaces, and storage spaces in the courtyards

• Ment to house workers of the factories

• Had an important impact on the city centre

Zürich, demographic development of the centre and the external neighbourhoods that were annexed

: Figure 35 summary: A monochromatic urban planning map featuring a legend titled "LEGENDE" that identifies six categories: SEC-REFERENZ, GESCHLOSSENE BEBAUUNG (closed building), OFFENE BEBAUUNG S. ZONE (open building S zone), B. ZONE (B zone), WALD (forest), and GRÜNFLÄCHEN (green spaces). The map uses varying shades of grey and textures to delineate these different zoning and land-use areas across a specific geographical territory.

N.Y.C Tenement Housing Reform: Housing the Working Classes in the North American Metropolis

- Beginning of 20th century: industrial development sparked following the civil war.

• Clothing sweat-shops in downtown Manhattan where the labour conditions

- Question on how to house all the labourers coming in

• Clothing, menswear, metal products, printing manufacturing industries emerged in the city

- People lived in tenement housing, where they could rent a bed/floors and sleep in hammock canvas

- Very crowded conditions of living due to development of the city to Commissioners grid plots were developed by private investors

- leading to tenement housing to occupied by residence of three families or more living independently of each other

- Street view of tenement houses in N.Y.C, ca 1905 to should just be for one family (but wasn't like that)

- Very elongated apartments inhabited by many people at the same time to very dense urban fabric

- 5 to 6 stories high and only had windows in the front and back of the facades that receives daylight

- Initial idea was to build tenement housing around courtyards

but in the beginning of 20th century, courtyards became urbanized leading to almost no light and air left in the interior courtyards

- Jacob Riis, an immigrant from Denmark, criticized the living conditions of the workers and made a critical assessment of the tenement houses

• Book: How the Other Half lives

- He initiated the Tenement House Committee that started making maps showing the density of the city to 15times denser than Zurich nowadays

- The highest density was found where the factories were located

- 1901: Tenement House Act led to requirements and regulations:

- minimum requirements for the amount of light received by living quarters

○ every room should have a window to the outside

- courtyards

• increased fire safety regulations

- ☐ installation of fire safeguards

• more ventilation

- Courtyards

○ proper ventilation systems

- every room should have a window to the outside

• building height restrictions

2. Visionary Towns for Companies and Industry

Image summary: A black and white architectural floor plan for a building, depicting a symmetrical layout with a central corridor and multiple divided rooms or offices on either side.

→ Port Sunlight: Green Company Town of Housing and Collective Spaces

Image summary: A black and white architectural floor plan for a narrow, rectangular building divided into two mirrored vertical halves. The layout features a central corridor flanked by multiple small rooms, including several areas containing furniture symbols such as beds and chairs, and a designated stairwell on the right side.

- Liverpool was an industrial centre located very close to coal fields and also at the crossing of railroads.

Image summary: A black and white architectural floor plan of a multi-unit residential building, featuring a central vertical corridor that provides access to several mirrored apartment units organized in a symmetrical layout.

Pes-en gudeton [30]

$ ^{*} $Clid Law (1879-1881)

"New Law" [第01-03]

- Big factories started emerging like the Port Sunlight soap factory, owned by the Lever brothers

- Lever brothers wanted to create housing for the workers and improve their living conditions and have them close to where they needed to work

• William Lever wanted a model worker's town different to the already existing villages, so that it could provide and image of how the working class could live in the future

Image summary: An illustrated panoramic view of the Port Sunlight works and village. The scene depicts a dense complex of red-brick industrial buildings with tall smokestacks alongside residential housing and greenery. Text at the top reads SUNLIGHT SOAP, and the bottom reads WORKS & VILLAGE, PORT SUNLIGHT. Noted details include a total site area of 114 acres, a works area of 21 acres, and a capacity of 2,400 tons of soap per week.

He believed new model would create new relations between the workers and the employers

☐ wanted a way of living together that reminded to the hand labour

○ a brotherhood everyone helps each other in the (Cristian) community

○ every has a nice house good dwelling

- Port Sunlight:

• “The most admirably planned industrial village”

- The urban pattern followed the topography of the site and the ground that was mushy

- A series of semi-detached houses aligned in smaller blocks with front and backyards.

○ Looked like village houses

- ☐ sometimes attached to each other

• Gardens

- Allotment gardens in the middle of the blocks, where people could cultivate food for their own subsistence

○ gardens were part of Port sunlight philosophy: the believe that people that worked would labour in the land afterwards

○ every house had a “productive” garden

○ terrain of green spaces leads to became park-like places

• two main axes in the urban fabric

- first lead to the church

- second boulevard/axe has a lot of public places (Bath, Museum, libraries, theatre)

- Quite impressive that workers in that time had access to those public and cultural services

- Idea to offer every kind of service, cultural, educational, commercial, making the Port Sunlight autonomous.

- Offer everything in town so you don't have to leave it

- uniformity achieved by defining 7 materials that could be used

- Tudor revival style:

- Brick (Ruabon)

- Roughcast (grey, white, or yellow)

○ Tile

○ Slate

- Beams (brown or green)

○ Plaster (white)

- o Sandstone (red)

- Port Sunlight became very important model for worker villages

- Inspired Ebenezer Howard to make first university department of civic design I Liverpool, 1909 (the countrys first urban planning department)

Cité Industrielle: Tony Garnier's new balance between dwelling and industry

- Tony Garnier, born in Lyon 1869 (-1948)

- Proposed a new urban plan for the fast growing city of Lyon – the Cit. industrielle to Town near all kinds of networks and mines

- Was thought for 35 thousand people

- Inspired by the socialist Utopian ideas of Fourier

: Image summary: A grainy, monochromatic aerial photograph showing an urban area partially obscured by thick clouds or smoke. A wide river bends along the bottom and right side of the frame, with a grid-like pattern of city streets and buildings visible in the clear areas between the river and the dark overhead cover.

- idea was that workers should have the best conditions of living

- based on his believes in the basic goodness of man: good spirit, goodness of man, good soul of men to a good Cit.: no law court, no police force, no jail, or church

• Industry and residency is clearly divided

- He believed in the healthy body to so people should be able to do sports

- Developed at a crossroad of a railroad, a river and near a lake

- Developed in several steps and zones:

• Industrial zone where all industries were

Dwelling zone

• Health zone

- Centre of the city = administrative centre

- public spaces are provided

- where people could collect

- He thought about the residential city in 2 parts: public buildings and residential areas related to administration and transport

Buildings were meant as public spaces where people could meet

• Smaller collective functions such as schools 

Image summary: An architectural rendering of a proposed industrial city titled "CITE INDUSTRIELLE" by architect Tony Garnier. The perspective view depicts a vast, arid landscape with a wide river flowing through the background. In the foreground, a planned urban layout features large, institutional buildings with flat roofs, wide boulevards, a sports stadium, and residential blocks arranged in a grid pattern.

- low-scaled but also connected to public spaces where people could meet

• Vocational schools leads to high quality, for free and equal education leads to no universities leads to he believed they were corrupt

- Very good health care facilities located in pavilions and combined in a bigger campus

• Sport infrastructures made to contribute to the well-being of citizens

- Blocksize 30m x 120x

- Qualitative dwellings organized in a sort of grid with ground bound single-family houses (also middle-rise apartments)

- houses should be built in concrete, representing the industrial era

• Houses located in loose way

- No fences nor borders around the buildings when they step out they are in the communal space

- Private and public radically re-thought leads to the city belongs to everybody

Image summary: A set of architectural technical drawings for residential houses, labeled Habitation 2 Chambres and Habitations. The document includes floor plans and exterior elevations. The floor plans show layout details for rooms, including chambers labeled Ch., and are paired with scales marked Echelle 0.02m. The elevations show the side and front profiles of the buildings, identified as Elevation Quest and Elevation Sud.

- Industry grid very strictly connected to the river. He designed hydroelectric hydro stations himself. Technical process was very celebrated.

- Was never realized but became a reference point in urban design for both working and living

185 18801114 1114185

3. The Cooperative Model

greater than → less than / Gross-Zürich and its housing Cooperatives: Alternative projects for dwelling and industry

- Beginning of 20th century:

- many people went to live in Z.H leads to which led to a huge demand of housing leads to outstretched the housing supply of the city leads to big apartment shortage

- people started to criticize the speculative housing (Blockrand)

○ Blockrand = development of expensive apartment

○ made by private investors

- Labour movement

- demanding better housing

- debates what alternative forms of worker-houses could be

○ 1911 to they organized important exhibitions to search for proposals for new solutions for housing problem

○ Inspired people to start thinking in an alternative way

• 1918 leads to competition for “Gross Zürich”

- design competition where people thought about Blockrand areas and broader settlements

- 2. Price for “Gross Zürich” to the idea of the garden city is re-appearing

- new network (like trams) connecting even outer parts of the city

○ people in the periphery can reach factories implies through network

○ new settlements trough network

- Cooperatives started developing new settlements in the green and in the periphery

- Cooperatives

- Many people joined and founded cooperatives, of which they became stakeholders

• They built houses and rented them to members

- Value of land was not increased every time an apartment was sold to with shareholders you didn't need to follow the market logics, which is why the rents stayed stable

• The typology of those

○ more communal spaces.

- every block is surrounded by a garden

- used productively

- today leisurely

- different example is the Friesenberg Siedlung

- Single-family-homes that are semiattached

- Same idea of the productive garden

।Image summary: Two architectural line drawings of a circular structure, viewed from above. The top drawing depicts a series of concentric rings: a central solid circle, an inner ring, an outer ring, and a textured outermost perimeter. The bottom drawing shows the same central circle but replaces the concentric rings with a radial pattern of wedge-shaped sections extending outward to a textured boundary.

Image summary: A map of Zurich showing land ownership by property type. Red areas denote property owned by the city, while green areas denote property owned by cooperatives. The land is distributed across various districts, with clusters of cooperative property appearing more frequently and in larger contiguous blocks than city-owned property.

- Emil Klöti developed the “Red Zürich” and promoted construction of affordable housing

- 1907: he became the municipal council of Z.H and housing cooperatives

- He received financial support from the municipal government and became important for the development of housing in Z.H

Radio-Model with green wedges

• Early 20th century: new housing was

- developed

Image summary: A technical floor plan diagram comparing two different architectural layouts for a residential building. Both layouts feature a central staircase flanked by mirrored apartment units, each labeled with German room designations and specific square meter measurements. The left layout includes rooms ranging from 11.2 to 16 square meters and kitchens of 10.1 to 10.5 square meters, while the right layout features rooms between 12 and 15 square meters and kitchens of 11.5 square meters.

- Nordstrasse in Wipkingen: Every unit had land allocated to them to grow vegetable to also created a communal space where people could meet Bathtub in kitchen

○ Friesenberg: New housing built for large families implies consisted of 3 to 4 flats

- next to each other

- This model of living in the green was very different from the Blockhaus model from a few years back

4. The State Model

→ Red Vienna's Superblocks, 1920

Image summary: A black and white architectural floor plan for a symmetrical building. The layout consists of three main sections: a central core flanked by two identical wings. Each wing contains two residential-style units with individual rooms and shared staircases. The central section contains a larger open area with its own central staircase and an arched entrance at the top.

- Next to speculative housing, owners of factories, cooperative housing, there was also a model where the state was the main actor.

- Turn of the 20th century: housing crisis in Vienna due to people moving to the city and due to W.W.1

- People started building their own houses in the periphery leading to wild settlements

- Sometimes cooperative movements tried to gather people to build more solid and settler colonies with bought materials

- 1921: New Idea of the Siedlungsamt– wanting to expand Vienna with decent housing

Allocating land

• Distributing building credits to cooperatives

• Providing assistance with design and building control

• Developing models for housing

simple houses should be self-build by the citizens themselves

Margatera Schütte-Lithotzky and Adolf Loos led the Siedlungsamt between 1921 and 1924, questioning the periphery:

○ how to move the self-constructed homes

○ how to construct more qualitative housing to take their place

they provided housing models with qualitative public space/garden to the cooperative associations

- 1926: State took new strategy – “Gemeindebauten” (and new leader)

- New strategy, since self-built housing didn't keep up

Mayor, a social democrat, launched big taxes “Breitener Steuer”

to develop big housing estates called “Gemeindebauten”

the rich paying for the poor housing

• Gemeindebauten

○ provided thousands of dwellings

placed in city-centre

Image summary: This is a political poster from the Social Democratic Party of Germany featuring a large, red-toned figure of a man looming over cityscapes. The text at the top reads, Der Rote Mann Spricht, meaning The Red Man Speaks. Three distinct sections at the bottom compare past promises, current achievements, and future pledges, each illustrated by groups of buildings. The poster concludes with the call to action, Darum wählt sozialdemokratisch, meaning Therefore vote Social Democratic.

○ with collective open spaces such as courtyards (green, calm spaces)

Public services, collective services and open spaces are offered for a better, cheaper, collective living

• Rabenhof-Siedlung:

○ big urban complex

■ retaught the figure of the perimeter block but was open  sort of open labyrinthian urban fabric of enclosed and open public collective spaces  go through tunnels

Image summary: A photograph of a paved campus walkway leading through a large, pointed brick archway. Two women are walking away from the viewer toward the arch, and several wooden benches with concrete bases line the left side of the path. Large deciduous trees with thinning autumn leaves frame the scene, and a multi-story building with rectangular windows is visible both above and through the archway.

- Inside courtyard communal facilities were placed

Image summary: An architectural site plan at a scale of 1:440, designed by architects Z.y. A. Schmid and R. Aichinger of Vienna. The diagram uses a black and white key to distinguish between new construction (Neu-Bestand), existing structures (Vorhandene Grundrisse), changed existing structures (Alter-Bestand), and demolition (Abzutragende Vermessung). The plan details a complex of interconnected rooms and courtyards, with specific areas numbered 1 through 4 in the legend, including a hall (Saal), an administrative room (Verwaltungszimmer), and a central stairwell (Zentral-Treppenhaus).

new concept fit into the already existing perimeter structure of the existing city

many dwellings and around were:

Karl-Marx-Hof:

• qualitative collective public and green spaces

collective facilities and social services

• cultural facilities and everyday facilities

○ Idea that workers should live in the city with green and qualitative spaces

○ Was built on a land strip:

Had a communal centre

।Image summary: An architectural site plan for a residential complex called Wohnhausanlage-XII-Heiligenstadterstrasse-Hagenwiese, designed by Ober-Stadtbaurat-Architekt Karl Zinn. The drawing shows a dense arrangement of multi-story residential buildings centered around several inner courtyards, bounded by Heiligenstadterstrasse to the south and various other streets. A detailed legend in the upper right lists facility types including a gym (Turnplatz), kindergarten (Kindergarten), and pharmacy (Apotheke).

Encloses a courtyard creating a certain collective quality

○ Dwellings had balcony and very green spaces around it

○ Collective inner spaces

Celebrated the idea of the Gemeinde of the State and also the idea of providing decent working houses

Believed that these housing communes would replace the bourgeoisie society and gradually built the concrete reality of a socialist urban society!

F.S V.L 03: Cities and Ideologies: Building for Healthy Minds (kommt in Prüfung vor)

Around 1914, Europe was dominated by the powers of Europe.

- Germany in the north

- Austria-Hungarian Empire to the South

- France

- quadruple alliance, was a big axis which was together with Bulgaria and turkey

- o Russia o G.B o Austria o Prussia

Any dispute could evoke a war which happened in 1914, when Ferdinand was assassinated which sparked W.W.1. There were different fronts where battles were fought. W.W.1 was a very big war with enormous damages:

- urban fabric

- economic damages

- food shortages

- housing shortage leads to entire built environment/urban landscape/cities/towns were destroyed

So, after W.W.1, there were many needs. They all had to develop ideas to rebuild a normal life. The question of housing and urban design became an ideological matter, connected to outspoken vision on modern “living together”, society and citizens.

Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky (1897-2000).

1. Housing the Modern Citizens

- City of Frankfurt

• Dense and historical city

- Historical city center with dense perimeter housing blocks

- Das Neue Frankfurt

• High demand of housing and modernization

• Parts of the city demolished or renewed.

- Program with alternatives for living developed

- 1925: appointed city planning counselor by the mayor

- May was asked to develop an ambitious housing program with new dwelling units representing the idea of new ways of living. to «Befreites Wohnen»

- 12'000 Dwelling units were constructed to aka Neues Frankfurt ○ Construction process/method should be rationalization.

- Prefabricated elements in a very rational way called Frankfurt Assembly Model to more rapid and economic.

- building process as assembling prefabricated building elements into a new sort of housing units to another way of designing

- Standardized elements: Bigger and smaller scale

- Maragrete

- Wiener Architektin

- specialized in the economy of the household. especially Schematic study of practices in the kitchen, based on an Englisch survey of Christine Frederick

- She tried to understand everyday practices and how space was needed and could be rationalized

Image summary: A German architectural line drawing of a kitchen layout. The floor plan identifies several key areas: a Vorratsschrank (pantry cupboard) and an Ofen (oven) along the right wall, a Tisch (table) in the bottom right corner, a Geschirrschrank (dishes cupboard) along the bottom, and a refrigerator (Eisschrank) at the top. On the left is an Abspülvorrichtung (washing device). Dashed lines with arrows, labeled A and B, indicate paths of movement through the space, with one path leading toward the Esszimmer (dining room) at the bottom.

• She improved the Kitchen Layout (Grundriss) to aka Frankfurter Kitchen

: A line drawing diagram of a kitchen and adjacent dining room, labeled in German, illustrating movement patterns indicated by dashed lines and letters. The layout includes a cellar (Keller), a food cupboard (Vorratsschrank), a dishes cupboard (Geschirrschrank), a stove (Ofen), and a table (Tisch). The dashed lines, labeled with 'A' and 'B', map paths traversing between these functional zones and extending into the dining room (Esszimmer).

o Rationalisation of space and use leads to smartly organized, space was condensed

○ You could cook without having to move so much

• New Model of Thinking: Rationalisation everything

○ to “New Frankfurt” was developed

Soon every room of a household was rationalized

○ Construction

Frederick Winslow Tylor looked at how practices to make products in factories could be rationalized

- Das Neue Frankfurt: Rationalization and New Collectives

This new program resulted in big housing states in the periphery

• Started with the idea of rationalization

Also thought about a modern way of living, which meant a healthy and hygienic way of living

Bruchfeldstrasse Neighborhood:

Typical apartment plan by Ernst May

○ So-called Zigzag-housing leads to New urban layout of Ernst May

Image summary: A street map of a neighborhood in Niederrad, featuring several blocks of buildings. Most building footprints are shaded in a muted reddish-brown, but one specific residential block outlined by Bruchfeldstrasse, Niederrader Strasse, and Braubergstrasse is highlighted in bright red, emphasizing a particular development or area within the city grid.

- apartments were twisted to change the usual perimeter form

- for better exposure to air and sunlight to more windows

- connection to the exterior

- small apartment because of the rationalization

- Quite high rents to affordable for middle and high class

- Compact and rationalized Apartment in between 55 to 65 square meters

- Compact kitchen and bathroom

- All had space to the outside (Private Garden/Roof Terraces)

- Central heating and central radio represented modern way of living

• Römer Stadt Neighborhood:

- near the Migge River, located on an old roman settlement in the periphery

○ 1200 dwelling units

- represented a modern way of living Combing of smalltown life with a bigger city qualities.

- connected to nature and relation with neighbourhood

- o Housing estate divided in: terraced houses & in the middle

Image summary: A black and white aerial photograph of a modern urban residential complex characterized by several long, multi-story rectangular apartment blocks arranged in a parallel and intersecting layout. The buildings are surrounded by open green spaces, walkways, and paved areas, with more distant trees and fields visible in the background.

large central park with all functions like shops, administrative office etcetera

Majority single-family houses with entrances on ground floor

■ Houses built after the “Existenzminimum” leads to extremely compact and precisely fitted to the need of the inhabitants leads to no space lose

■ Size: Ca. 88m squared

o Enormous green spaces planed by Lebrecht Migge

■ Autor of "Jedermann Selbstversorger" to principle of autarky

Everyone had a garden in front of the house to play sports for example and further away to plant (received like a schräbergarte)

He said gardening and providing people with gardens was the solution to have a better and modern life

■ Productive gardens (schräbergarten) would make people independent from external food supply and would improve their economic situation to autarky and independent families

• Siedlung Goldstein

O Aka Erwerblosensiedlung Goldstein

○ Emergency program built in 1929 leads to high unemployment rate when economic crisis hit Germany

o Land was leased in big plots to unemployed families. They were taught to construct their own houses with their own labor

o Houses built with very conventional construction methods to brick walls and wooden roofs (not prefabricated anymore)

o Professional companies provided equipment and a supervisor o Ground of ca 10 to 20 men worked ca 3000 to 4000h to complete houses. Built house were given to one of them by lottery.

○ 920 dwellings with spacious gardens

○ Not a garden city to agricultural settlement (700 square meters)

Cultivate Own vegetables and fruits

Keep small animals

Self suffient

- Berlin, Waldssiedlung Onkel Toms Hütte: Constructing a New Dwelling Landscape

• Designed by avant-garde architects

• Overpopulation in the city center of Berlin

- 1920: city program made to respond to housing crisis

• Waldsiedlung Onkel Toms Hütte

- Way of creating modern housing in the context of a forest combining different housing typologies

- Multilayred storyhouse

○ One family houses

- No led than 1900 dwellings implies 1100 apartments and 800 single-family houses o Very compact between 61 and 65 meters (apartments)

- Idea of forest to create a modern environment reacting and respecting as much as possible of the forest are that was there before

- Concern: how such a large place would allow being an individual and not part of bigger mass

• In order to avoid monotony and anonymity they:

- created a color-scheme of facades was developed so that building create urban design chambers to as you move through the neighborhoods, dwelling would be recognizable by the color network

- created specific relations between buildings and landscape to particularity of the landscape gave every place a specific feeling and characteristic

→ although typology of houses is quite similar, combination of color and landscape elements would prevent monotony.

- Rotterdam, Spangen: Rethinking the Perimeter Block

- After W.W.1: big shortage of housing so government established policy combined with existing building act to sparked a new collective of housing projects often designed by avant-garde architects.

• Michel Brinkman, Spangen Quarter in Rotterdam

- Remarkable complex

- Speaks about open and transparent idea of society

- Built in a smaller neighborhood of perimeter blocks

- o In the middle of the block are the public spaces

○ About 273 housing units

- Relatively small and one part could be accessed on the ground floor

- All the entrances are in the patio site

- Different ways of living

- Typical floor

- And maisonette house on the top of the apartment

• Is like a house

- Entrance is on a upper street

○ “View of the street in the sky” was introduced à from the second level there was a street “in the sky” with entrances

- About 1 kilometers long and functioned as normal street

- Idea was for it to function as a social space and extension of domestic realm à each house had door to the domestic realm but no to the street

- Perimeter block opened and broken à not completely enclosed and open on some parts.

○ New collective domain that can be practiced by all Rotterdam citizens to becomes part of the network of the city.

○ In the middle of courtyards, collective buildings were placed.

- Casablanca: indigenous Dwelling Patterns Reconsidered

• 1912 to 1956 was a french colony

- 1917/18: “How can we provide decent modern housing for locals?”

• Albert Laprado (French architect) designed a new medina (neighborhood)

- Studied how Moroccan lived and what elements defined their living, how street elements built a neighborhood to Streets, entrance, patio, gate way

- o Houses very compact around a courtyard and made in traditional materials used in traditional settlements to neighborhood was modern but looked old and traditional even though built in the 1910s and early 1920s to bc of the traditional elements that where kept

○ Was embraced also by the locals the rational way of building with traditional elements

- Soviet Russia: Building a “Worker's Paradise”

• Two Revolutions March and October leads to outcomes where Big Ideologies

- Communist thinkers: Joseph Stalin & Vladimir Lenin

- Stahlin wanted that Russland should become Paradise for workers in a 5 years plan

○ A power house for industrialisation that was led and managed of centralized common economy

○ Making agriculture a collective thing to big collective farms should happen

- Collectivisation of everyday life and living (Workers paradise)

- Stroikom Housing: New communist way of life (novyl brt stroikom)

Stahlin introduced a building commission of the economic council of Russia called Stroikom

• New socialist, communist ideologies of housing collectivity

Mosei Ginzburg commissioned by Stroikom had to develop new idea of what collective life would mean in terms of housing. The purpose was:

Good helty dwellings of all workers

o Speak about the reform of society that was not based on the single family household

Mosei Ginzburgs idea:

o Reduction of private space and expansion of collective space

○ So rethinking the balance of private and collective space

• Experiment: Dom-kommuna

reducing private space and expanding collective space traditional

- Dwelling reduced to absolute minimum and collective services such as cooking, childcaring, laundry etcetera (apt. had kitchens but equipped to the bare minimum to a kitchen box)

- o Way of collective was to emancipate female citizens and help them free themselves from domestic labor.

- Narkomfin housing: sort of communal block with communal functions

- Communal functions in a small building connected by small bridge.

- Childcare

- Cafeteria

- Sport space

- o Housing units very small and in close to each other.

- Mainly inhabited by middle-class, so model wasn't developed in larger scale

2. Cities as Forms of Power

- A new Berlin for a New Reich Germania: Building a Monumental Capital for Nazi Germany

- Hitler thought of creating Germanic empire and Berlin as the capital.

• He changed urban landscape leads to example is Reichs-Autobahn

- Plan for Germania related to creating new network to connect Berlin to highway network and further Germanic empire.

○ Convince people of advantage of national socialism to you can easily explore the country

- o Motivation: modernizing the country, making good connections, offer people employment, make people appreciate beauty of their country in leisurely way.

○ Idea of modern city having healthy body and healthy mind to highway networks allow to enjoy healthy landscape

• Additionally Idea of creating a new Monumental Axis to show the Power of the

Nazis in the City of Berlin

○ Albert Sper had to redesign Berlin and the urban formation of Berlin

At symbolic park there was strong and monumental north-south axis grander than Champs-Elysees

○ The Axis connenting Volkshalle and the Station

Volkshalle at the end of axis to based on the pantheon but way bigger monumental building

- Moscow: Planning for and Building Monuments to Bureaucracy

• Stalin imagined Moscow to become center of his empire.

○ Imagined it would be reconstructed and redesigned

Image summary: A black and white photograph of a large architectural structure featuring a prominent ribbed dome topped with a small cupola. Below the dome is a wide, rectangular building with a facade characterized by a long row of vertical columns and symmetrical wings on either side.

- idea to turn Moscow into bigger metropolis with large boulevards and

- o around axis important monumental buildings like the Palace of the Soviets should be places

- Palace of the soviets big competition was realised

- Boris lofan proposed building higher than any other important building at the time, representing Soviet power and Communism as better ideology than capitalism.

- Located in very centric place where cathedral was demolished

- 1941: construction of Palace of the Soviets abandoned bc of W.W.2, leaving only foundation behind -> was a pool for a ime

- 1958: pool opened until 1990 after fall of communism.

- New cathedral was constructed again

- Moscow: Constructing (Underground) Palaces for the People

- 1930s: Stalin commissioned metro network 4 kilometers long with 13 stops à would monumentalize ideology of new way of living and transport in the city

- o Stations had grandiose outlook with grand illumination, like being in a palace

- Other station in higher level had even greater outlook with interconnected vault structures

- o Unique interior scheme for each station

○ Lighting design emphasized radiance and monumentality

- Decorations presented ideology of new communist society

F.S V.L 04: Envisioning Urban Utopias

At the end of the second world war:

- the geopolitical situation in Europe was stabilized, due to treaties.

- These treaties solidified the political borders and the political balance within Europe right after the first world war.

Roaring 20s:

- economic prosperity in many parts of the world

- important era culturally

- important cities became centres of cultural development: Paris, N.Y.C, Berlin, Chicago, Sydney

- new ways of dancing and new music genres began being important

Beginning of 1920s:

- era in between world wars

- important political period leads to era of women suffrage leads to female vote was introduced

- mass culture related to mass communication and mass production

- ex. Radio tends to music, news could be transmitted

- ex. Car goes to moving around more easily

- propelled further development of culture & news

- Economy went well implies people had economy capacity to buy products, houses, cars

- Society changed with consumer appliances entering houses

- new utopian way of thinking became important

1929:

- First wall street crash implies stock market crashed

- led to the great depression

• poverty

- low profits

- deflation

• very high number of unemployment ( greater than 20% in the U.S.A)

- end of the era: mass consumption to new utopian way of thinking became important

- What is the ideal city for 20th century? What Modell do we need?

• power and beauty of modern technology

• enlightened ideas of social justice

- new improved ideas of living to blue and white works should have same rights, etcetera

1. Le Corbusier's Ideal of an open city

- Radical departure from the historical city

- Le Corbusier leads to Questioned how to think about new modern cities

• “recherche patient” to slow and long-term research

- starting in the late 1910s, and continue in the 20s, 30s, and 40s.

- Idea was that the new city was going to replace the old city.

- Research started in pragmatic fashion with the destruction form W.W.1 and how to reconstruct these areas in a new city

- Le Corbusier investigation started by focusing on single dwelling cells to help Belgium population to suggested Maison Dom-Ino

- Maison Dom-Ino

The Dom-Ino System: Prototypical Cell of a New City

Domus = House, Innovation

Standardized 2-story house made of concrete slabs, columns, and a staircase

• For middle class wanting to live in a “villa”

Elements of skeleton (=dwellings cells) would be delivered by contractor to the site upon request from architect or client

Prefabricated dwelling cells

○ basic cell for the city

Image summary: An architectural line drawing of a three-story open skeletal structure. The design consists of flat platforms supported by vertical columns, with an open staircase connecting the levels. The drawing is an isometric perspective on aged, yellowed paper.

- Partition walls could be placed in primary structure creating dwellings acc to needs to flexibly system allows cell to evolve and adapt over time

- Exterior walls

- built from destructed buildings

- Outside represented identity and taste of citizens by adding different elements

- Inner walls

- Prefabricated new walls

- Like Domino Game to Single dwelling cells could be combined into bigger urban ensemble or perimeter block and could be set in every context

- Idea never realized

- 1923: big manifesto called “Vers une Architecture”. Last chapter mentions how cities are needed and if we don't think about it, revolutions will come due to unliveable situations to goal for Le Corbusier to revolution can be solutioned by architecture

- Reassembling Individual and Collective Dwelling Values in the Immeubles Villas: A New collective Typology

Le Corbusier idea combining two dwelling ideas

o Villa: Own personal house connected to green piece of land

○ Immeubles (bigger housing block): Living in a city: dense way, access of collective and public services

Reason of this Idea: Crisis of domesticity

○ Women weren't at home anymore  had a job outside the house

○ Middle class families, had an idea of servant in a house to less conventional

collectively and individuality combined into one model

collectively of living in the city and individuality of living near garden

Inspiration: Monastery of Ema near Venice. Here, Monk houses combined into collective cluster with big gardens and L-form dwelling around it.

• Immeubles villas

Two level villas

○ had L-shaped dwellings with big terrace gardens  open air, green space

Second level: sleeping rooms and bathrooms looking into this terrace garden

• Gallery Space

Image summary: An architectural drawing featuring a large-scale site plan and two detailed floor plan segments for the Immeuble Villa. The site plan shows a symmetrical arrangement of multi-unit residential dwellings flanking a central rectangular open space or courtyard. The lower sections provide detailed layouts of individual living units, including labels for rooms and terraces.

- On the top level to Combined in bigger perimeter blocks allowed for collective functions at roof level such as party rooms, etcetera

- Lower levels of perimeter block to collective domestic services

- idea was to share collective functions such as storage, heating systems, etcetera

- Tennis courts

- without any domestic staff to replacement of bourgeoise ideal of living with domestic staff

- Ville Contemporaine and the principles of Modern Urbanism: Beyond the Street

• Contemporary city for 3 Mio. Inhabitants

○ Replacement of old city by more open form of city

○ Idea of corridor streets in old town to density but not qualitative to no green space

Image summary: A handwritten page of sketches and French text exploring architectural and spatial concepts. The top features the phrase "il faut tuer la rue-corridor!" alongside a perspective drawing of a narrow street and a grid-like urban plan. Lower sections include radial sketches labeled "voix a l'ennemi!" and "illusion des plans!", a diagram of a central building surrounded by roads labeled "autre illusion!", and a wide landscape sketch at the bottom with the word "ciel" (sky) and "les redents" (the setbacks).

city was in crisis due to changing mobility and exploding growth of cities

He proposed new type of urban fabric, which was denser

○ Towers, Housing blocks

much more open spaces

• Fundamental principles:

○ Decongesting city centre

☐ while raising its density

Enlargement of the means of circulation

○ Enlargement of the landscaped areas

Image summary: An architectural diagram titled SYSTÈME PRÉCONISÉ comparing urban densities in Paris across different eras. The diagram features a series of plan views: the 14th century (XIVe siècle) shows scattered small buildings; the 18th century (XVIIIe siècle) shows more dense, clustered structures; and the 19th century (XIXe siècle) shows structured blocks. To the right, the recommended system (Système Préconisé) proposes large, organized grids with high-density residential blocks. Text labels specify density benchmarks, noting a medium density of 560 inhabitants per hectare for Paris and proposing a range from 200 to 2,000 inhabitants per hectare for the recommended system.

• Radial concentric City  Clear centre with different zones

• Main zone equals city la faire  for business

mainly offices so several 10'000 people could work

○ Cruciform skyscrapers

At foot of cruciform skyscrapers, he imagined green landscapes with cafes, theatres, and exhibition halls in the city centre.

Traffic station combining automotive traffic, buses, and transport by air in the very centre

Image summary: An architectural line drawing depicting a futuristic urban plan with several massive, monolithic skyscraper blocks arranged around a large, open central plaza. The buildings are characterized by dense, repetitive horizontal lines, and the plaza contains a central circular feature and wide pedestrian paths leading toward a distant cityscape.

City centre housed ca 500 thousand inhabitants (white workers) and remaining 2.5 Mio. inhabitants in satellite cities in the periphery (blue workers)

Streets were becoming traffic machines with 2 levels

Lower for fright traffic

○ Upper for people traffic

He imagined 2 types of housing around the city connected to green areas

○ Lotissement à Rodents: continuous meandering housing blocks

○ Lotissement Fermés à Alvéoles: reminded to the immeubles villas

Specific hierarchy of circulation with main axes

○ Ex. bigger streets and smaller streets leading to park spaces

(Ville Contemporain) where realized:

- Pavillon de L'esprit Nouveau: Announcing a New Urban Way of Dwelling

Made for exposition des arts décoratifs in Paris

1:1 modell of this immeuble villa

• Immeubles villa with terrace garden built there

• Shown as future model of dwelling cell

Modern, transparicy, one room leading to another

Big living room

- Cité Frugès, Bordeaux France

- Test to realize his ideas in a small neighbourhood

- Exploring the idea of prefabricated elements to make a new city

- New different typologies through combination of housing units developed  Domino Houses

- o dwellings consisting of 2 modules and half a module

Image summary: A series of line drawings illustrating architectural modules. From left to right, the diagrams represent 1 cellule (a single cube), 1/2 cellule (a half-cube), 2 cellules (two cubes joined with an open space), and 4 cellules (a larger cluster of four cubes). A legend on the right defines window sizes relative to the unit: 1 Fenêtre, 1/2 Fenêtre, and 1/4 Fenêtre.

Image summary: A set of four isometric line drawings showing different configurations of a modular building structure composed of interconnected cubic blocks. The structures vary in orientation and arrangement, with some featuring open-air staircases and window openings.

- Dwelling cells were combined creating Citrohan typology to 1 dwelling space as starting point staked in 3 levels with main outside dwelling space on the roof

○ Only 53 units realized

○ Use of colour was important

- He proposed very radical typologies no one had ever seen.

- Inhabitants transformed these typologies by adding elements to represent their own identity

○ Too radical for people

- Plan Voisin: A Model Projected on the City of Paris

his utopian proposals (ville contemporaine) was used to criticism how Paris was developing

○ 1920: new administrative centre for Paris in the outskirts leads to la defense area

o Counter proposal of Corbusier based on ville contemporaine called Plan Voisin

He wanted to change urban fabric and make it to a ville contemporaine

Image summary: An isometric architectural drawing of a housing development showcasing a cluster of multi-story modular residential units. The units are organized in several rows and clusters, colored in red, blue, and green, with flat roofs and protruding rectangular sections. The site is integrated into a sloped landscape with steps and greenery, including trees interspersed between the buildings. A north arrow (N) is located in the upper right corner to indicate the site's orientation.

Image summary: An urban planning map overlaying a proposed grid of green spaces and structured building blocks onto an existing historical city map. A prominent straight green corridor cuts diagonally across the landscape, intersecting with a rectangular network of green-highlighted plots and red-marked structural elements.

Business centre should be in the very centre of Paris, not outskirts with crucified towers

o Monuments of Paris were incorporated: louvre, Eiffel tower, squares...

• Suggestion to incorporate existing characteristic of the city into Plan Voisin to idea of modern urbanism could relate or absorb existing heritage of cities

Believed one could easily erase historical urban fabric and replace it with modern one as long as one kept the monuments.

- Funcionalist and Socialist Ideals in the Ville Radieuse: A Perfected Model for the City

- Proposal of “Radiant City” (Ville Radieuse) during a ciam meeting in Brussel

- Scheme as response to Soviets' question to think about future of cities

○ Not Radial concentric City anymore

○ Now Linear model

- Clearly zoned city with:

- Manufacturing/industries

○ Habitation

- commercial and administrative zones

- Middle part of this city

○ Residential zone

Image summary: A hand-drawn conceptual diagram illustrating a vertical hierarchy of societal sectors. At the top, the word "affairs" is positioned above a square and two circles. Below this is a section labeled "habitation," split horizontally by a line with arrows pointing outward. At the bottom, the word "manufacture" is enclosed in a rectangle, which sits above a larger segmented base labeled "grande industrie."

○ Inner part made of specific housing blocks leads to Dwellings more democratic

○ Blue and white works would be all living together side by side in this middle part of the city

- Roads don't exist anymore

- Idea was for city to be very green, where public sphere could be made of green landscape instead of squares, streets, etcetera

- Pedestrian city

- Interior streets in the interior of blocks connecting the building blocks to one another, creating a certain continuity

• Density in radiant city: 1000 inhabitant per hectare (denser than Paris or N.Y.C)

- Idea was incorporated in Chart a Athens by ciam

Engaging with Colonialism in Plan Obus

- Corbusier gets inspired by the view of the airplane “The airplane has given us a birds eye view. Then the eye sees clearly, the mind makes a clear decision” -. Le Corbusier

- Rio de Janeiro: The confrontation with Topography

- He started thinking about how new urban developments related to beauty and quality of already existing urban fabric

- o Attention to the landscape and Topography

Image summary: A colored pencil and ink sketch on aged paper depicting a stylized landscape featuring a large bridge spanning across a body of blue water. The drawing includes red grid-like patterns suggesting urban areas or mapped zones, alongside green hills and distant orange mountains.

○ Still taking about radiant cities, but with present of nature to competing and overcoming beauty of nature

○ 1920: new urban models and urban development

that tried establishing a relationship with existing urban landscape

Idea came from airplane but also syndicalist utopianism, which were far-left ideas

idea of symbiosis between man, architecture, and landscape very important

○ New radical urban form, a viaduct

Express way on top and immeubles villas below

■ Included dwellings, administrative/business centre, and cultural functions

○ Thinking the city: linear, vertical, and dense way

• Algiers: A New Urban Order for the Territory

○ French Colony

o New urban form much more related to urban territory

Plan Orbus, very bold suggestion with the idea that Algiers would become Africa's capital

Image summary: A black and white architectural rendering of a futuristic coastal city plan. The design features a large, curved urban development with a series of interconnected, rounded building complexes and a wide, sweeping transportation artery following the shoreline of a bay.

Suggestion new urban order, taking in consideration the historical city

City was already growing fast due to colonization

Made up of different elements such as Kashba

■ Looked at people in very orientalist way and compared city to female body of Algier

○ Proposed vertical garden city

Reason: He believed city was spreading gradually, affecting entire territory leads to Gradually exploding

would bundle infrastructure and urbanization and made more efficient leads to argumentation for building vertically

not to affect territory so strongly

Existing city could continue to live beneath highway

Plan Obus started as a huge vertical Domino System (slaps/common system) with highway on top floor and in-between pedestrian highway

☐ main elements:

New business district at the tip of Kashba

housing in elongated building (26m x 15 kilometers) with a highway on top

2. Hilberseimer's Vertical Metropolis – Grossstadt

- Ludwig Hilberseimer (1885 to 1967) German architect and urban planner - 1927: book “Metropolitan Architektur” (Grossstadt Architektur) made suggestion of high-rise city of 1 million. inhabitants

- Proposal was a response to Le Corbusier Ville Contemporaine

- not radical enough

• because it didn't deal with traffic problem enough

- Capacity of change/adaptation/flexibility is not there

- Hilberseimer came up with idea of high-rise city.

- which started from one big typology, the block-slab

- block-slab was the basic unity of the high-rise city

- Large perimeter blocks arrow 600 wide times 100 meters deep

- Zoned vertically, not horizontal like at le Corbusier ○ 5 storey block to commercial

○ 15 stores slab to housing

Image summary: A line drawing of a building cross-section, labeled BLOCK QUERSCHNITT, illustrating a mixed-use structure. The design consists of a 5 storey block for commercial use at the base, supporting two vertical towers of 15 storey slabs for housing.

○ Idea was to live close to work  housing right on top

○ Dwellings fully furnished because he thought people would move in quickly

• Separation of traffic

- public transport underground

○ vehicular traffic on ground floor

- pedestrian traffic on 6th floor

- utopian proposal but he said it could be introduced in already existing cities

greater than → less than / made his proposal in a small part of berlin to in the end criticises himself to necropolis (where people go to die and not live)

3. Frank Lloyd Wright's Urbanity without a city

- Frank Lloyde Wright's = The Architect of that time

- Frank Lloyde Wright's Broadacre City: A Model for the Anti-City

- Frank Lloyd was a very important American architect who reacted to the ideas of Le Corbusier

- 1932: started Broadacre City in reaction to proposals of European architects, like Le Corbusier

- Radically different than other cities to not a dense city but started form the idea that form of the city had become obsolete in modern times, so idea of dense form was outmoded

- He suggested to think about urbanity without traditional form of the dense city

- Launched his ideas in a book called “The Disappearing City”, where he manifested against development of centralized cities and advocated idea of the city in a decentralized way to believed this had disconnected man from the earth and felt that citizens are cult into idea of centralized cities

- Fritz Lang also criticized the overcrowded city to he saw metropolis as a monstrous machine which was overruling man and was getting completely disconnected from the needs of men to made a film about the inhumane place

- Broadacre City as a response to monstrous city

○ 1930s: he built model of Broadacre City which was placed in Rockefeller Centre in N.Y

○ He proposed to transform U.S in independent farmers and proprietors

○ Main idea: each citizen would have 1 acre of land where they could grow food and become self-sufficient to develop “usonian” (refers to his utopian vision) community

- Broadacre City as statement to plan land but also as social, economic and political statement

Image summary: A black and white photograph of an architectural scale model of an urban landscape situated on a large table. Behind the model is a wall featuring the text "A NEW FREEDOM" and a detailed descriptive paragraph explaining a concept for individual land ownership and administrative organization.

- Idea that whole land could be divided into systems of acres, forming counties which would be the level of governance to each county would be self-sufficient and have their own places of gathering, etcetera

○ Typical county would cover 10 kilometers with 7500 inhabitants

- Plan consisted of 4 sections, each with particular functions:

- Civic center with neighborhood park (section A)

- Theater or circus for fairs and pageantry with monumental pole for announcing festivals (section B)

• Industry (section D)

- Little farms and a market (section C)

- Sections were bordered by big “arterial”

• Highway network

Image summary: An urban planning diagram dividing a territory into a grid of various land-use zones. The map is split into four main quadrants labeled Section A, B, C, and D, separated by a central corridor of schools. Surrounding these sections are designated areas including little farms, small industry, markets, minimum houses, larger houses, recreation, clinics, a tourist camp, and a county airport.

o he believed that on top of roads there would be a high-speed monorail connecting the disperse model of the Broadacre City to one another

o Model based on idea that every family would have personal car and aerators (sort of helicopter)

○ He designed various types of housing with one to various parking spaces for cars to related to idea of a homestead, which was a complete, integrated, agrarian enterprise

Various houses would be set on single acre and would create Broadacre City

☑ Designed multiple types because of inequality

Image summary: A series of architectural conceptual drawings and models identifying three different house types based on farm size and scale. These include a "Medium house, for little farms" at the top left, a "Larger house on sloping ground" at the top right, and a "Minimum (1500$) house" at the bottom left. A "Modern farm building for acreage farm" is shown at the bottom right. These structures are linked by red lines to specific zones on two side-by-side urban planning diagrams that label areas such as "Small Industry," "Minimum Houses," "Medium Houses," and "Little Farms."

- Frank Lloyde Wright's Broadacre City: Usonian Houses

• Usonian houses were designed by Wright

○ Built in experimental cases

O Often had a close relationship between inside outside

Typical materials like brick, concrete and wood

• Willey house Minnesota 1934

○ L-shape

○ Plan set out on a grid

○ Simple material

○ Low roofs with overhang

o Strong connection between interior and exterior space

• Sturges House in L.A

○ Open floor plan

Flat roof with overhang

○ Simple materials

Image summary: An architectural model of a modern building featuring a large flat roof and red-orange walls. The structure opens onto a large courtyard area with wide, tiered steps leading down from the building's terrace to a base marked with sketch-like landscaping details.

: Architectural sketch of a house designed by Frank Lloyd Wright for Mr. and Mrs. George D. Sturges in Los Angeles, California. The drawing depicts a cantilevered, multi-level structure with a flat, vegetated roof, perched atop a rocky, wooded hillside.

F.S V.L 05: Reconstructing the City, Constructing New Towns

During W.W.2, cities were very often in the middle of these wars as they were:

- economic nodes

- very often strategic targets

- due to the crossroads

- infrastructures

- water infrastructures, etcetera

- Many cities were bombed to annulate their physical and social fabric respectively how people are living together to You demolish the spirit of the city

After W.W.2-Question:

- How you rebuild the city?

- Where is the heart of the city? Where do people live?

- Reconstruction wasn't the only problem, also urban sprawl and suburbanization

• Urban sprawl where happening (Levittown U.S.A)

- Question on how to expand cities and where the center of the city is in an endless field of houses.

“We must be urban-minded” – The necessary process is not one of decentralization, but one of recentralization” to New Town emerged in response. This was an attempt to start from scratch all over the world

1. Rebuilding the Heart of the City

Hiroshima, Japan: Designing the Empty Heart of the City

- Destruction of Hiroshima, August 6, 1945

- At the end of W.W.2: when Japan surrendered, over 200 cities were bombed including Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which led to a tremendous scale of urban damage toquestion about how to rebuild the physical, social and symbolic fabric of the city.

• Sengo = post war period

- = was about the feeling of people after W.W period

- = It meant rebuilding collective identity of Japanese cities

- The people of Hiroshima decided Definity to stand for peace and wanted to demonstrate it to the world by molding their ruined community into a monument of permanent peace

- 1949: competition to respond to symbolic peace city

- Kenzo Tange (1913 to 2005) was a young professor at Tokyo University and part of a group of architects that tried to understand and make inventory of destruction of atomic bombs

Image summary: A side-by-side composition featuring a black and white portrait of architect Kenzo Tange on the left and a map of Hiroshima on the right. The map, titled "Extent of Fire and Limits of Blast Damage," uses a large red shaded area to illustrate the extent of fire breaks and concentric circles to mark the limits of structural damage resulting from the atomic blast.

He took competition as a chance to rethink city and its structure and character

He proposed new plan for Hiroshima. The Reconstruction Plan

○ At the centre, empty green heart of vast and open space called The Peace Memorial Heart to symbol of open wound caused by war

Connected to other green spaces on the city, creating a network

○ Park took 6 years to construct and 1955 it opened

○ Composed of the

Peace Memorial Complex, and inside the International Conference centre, main mall, and exhibition hall

the Peace Memorial Plaza where you could share the memories of the past

The Big Arch, later the Cenotaph, where you could reflect

The Atomic Bomb Dome stood at the end of the axis which was one of the few surviving buildings

।Image summary: A black and white urban planning map showing a city layout with a network of streets, waterways, and highlighted green spaces. The map depicts a dense grid of blocks intersected by a river and a circular road system, with several reclaimed land areas extending into a dark body of water at the bottom.

Image summary: A city planning diagram titled Central Theme of Hiroshima City Planning, detailing the layout of the Peace Park Project. The map shows a green park area situated along a winding blue river, featuring key landmarks including the Peace Memorial, Peace Museum, and Peace Memorial Museum. Other designated areas include the International Peace Memorial Facilities, a football field, and an open air tennis court.

○ He also introduced elements that would speak about the future, which was about new, healthy, and well-educated citizens to library, museum, children's libraries all speaking to a new society

New Centralities in the War-Torn Dutch City of Rotterdam:

- Rotterdam was strongly affected by W.W.2 implies levelled by German airstrikes

- 11k buildings demolished & 80'000 where homeless leads to question of how to rebuild

Rotterdam led to debate between traditionalists and modernists

- Traditionalists wanted to reconstruct according to traditional/historical forms, typologies, and morphologies

- Modernists wanted to radically modernize the city and thought about city of the future to should use the terrible tabula rasa to rethink the city, making a new city for new society

• Modernist won this debate

- Willem Gerrit Witteveen (1891 to 1979) and Cornelis Van Traa (1899 to 1970) developed a set of modernist reconstruction plans

- First plan suggested big perimeter blocks and modern typologies of tower block and the slab, which became part of idea of bigger perimeter blocks

- Modern and open

- Challenge to change morphology from a fine-grained urban tissue to bigger combinations of towers and slabs

- City centre rethought as broad avenue developed by Jaap Bakema and Jo Van den Broek

- This centre was called Lijnbaan, Rotterdam

- Radical new proposal that would become modern core of the city

Image summary: A detailed historical city map of Old and New Rotterdam, featuring a dense network of streets, buildings, and waterways. The map centers on the city's urban layout adjacent to the Nieuwe Maas river, with various city blocks highlighted in different colors according to a legend in the bottom right corner. The river flows through the lower right portion of the map, with the words "NIEUWE MAAS" clearly labeled.

- centre was about shopping and living and based on idea of American consumerism and modern middleclass way of life

- Mass consumption

○ Commodity

○ Mass distribution

- Imagined Linjbaan to be out of towers and modernist slabs.

They believed towers and slabs should have urban cohesion, just like a family

Introduction of modern city -> on left side you see how it was before the war

- Cohesion was created by

Image summary: A ink sketch on brown paper depicting two contrasting scenes. The top half shows a city skyline with several tall buildings and a tower topped with a cross, with curved arrows indicating movement between the structures. The bottom half shows a line of small, simplified human figures holding hands and walking in a procession, with arrows indicating movement toward the left.

- relating all buildings in very strict grid. Everything designed in module of 1.1m so buildings and public spaces would coincide and relation

- Incorporating transition elements such as canopies that would connect the buildings, creating connections between various buildings

• In the middle strong public spaces, like a 18m wide pedestrian axis

- centre was very vibrant and connected to consumption and modernity and composed of modern high-rise housing

- Living in the city centre in a high rise

- Quality they are constructed around a huge courtyard

- Was also constructed by other architects

Amsterdam's Playgrounds as New Commons: Punctual Commons in the City

- After W.W.2 inventing approach to recover the city was made by Aldo van Eyck

- Single spots that would generate new sort of centres in the city

- Playgrounds were designed in a variety of places with simple modular geometric forms

- They were positioned rather dispersed but also in very important places or dense neighbourhood to attract other citizens - They would be adapted to the situation  sometimes in open air and sometimes covered

Image summary: A technical drawing on yellowed paper displaying various geometric playground equipment designs, including hexagonal, circular, and rectangular structures with hollow centers. Each design is labeled with letter codes such as AL, BJ, and CK, and the document includes a text block in the bottom right titled "SPEELPLAATSEN ALGEMEEN" (General Playgrounds) and "ZANDBAKKEN EN SPEELTOESTELLEN" (Sandboxes and Playground Equipment).

- 700 playgrounds had a very big effect on the city of Amsterdam creating connectivity and collectively thus extending the public network

• Creating new meeting point for kids and parents

• Improves or extends public network (streets)

• Multiple little centres

Reconstruction as a collective material: Le Havre, France Oeuvre (nach Amerstam)

- Le Havre = very important in terms of logistic due to harbour, also completely destroyed leading to a lot of homeless

- Auguste Perret commissioned on reconstruction. He didn't want to choose between modern and historical city to believed it was possible to combine ideas of modern city and historical city

• Worked 20 years on it

Points of departure:

○ decreasing density in city centre: 2600 inhabitant pro hectare goes to 800 inhabitants

- Modern city – regular tissue of blocks, streets and squares (compare historical city)

- He believed in order to improve living qualities, city should be far less dense

- City centre erased

○ 3-vault system based on 3 grids

- City centre large mix of urban blocks with living and commerce

○ Smaller urban blocks

- o Third block mimicking part of historical fabric

- "To inscribe the city with measure, like a musical harmony"

Image summary: An architectural city plan drawing depicting a grid-like urban layout with various rectangular blocks, wide avenues, and several highlighted central plazas or large building complexes.

- Residential buildings, public structure and public spaces

- Modular frame (6.24m grid)

- Standardization: cohesion and economy

- Reinterpretation of the historic urban block and urban spaces

- Using modern typologies of the tower and the slab

- New city centre

- Clear modular structures. All blocks were inscribed in a 6.24m grid, which is ideal span of reinforced concrete for barring structure to connection of urban design task to building task.

- Modular frame (6.24m) would create standardization that would create cohesion and economy

- Auguste Perret rethought the form of urban perimeter block and reintroduced particular urban figures like gallery and passage

- He combined commerce and living unlike Linjbaan which had clear sectioning

- Apartments were spacious and large with courtyards, and all constructed in concrete with some diversity in the facades

- ☐ Primary framework of reinforced concrete

Image summary: An isometric architectural line drawing of an urban grid featuring rows of multi-story rectangular buildings arranged around open public squares and wide streets. The city layout is situated along a waterfront on the right side, with several boats visible on the water.

○ Secondary and thirdly elements also out of concrete

○ Primary and secondary elements had cornices and columns implies reference to historical architecture

city emerged that wasn't known before with large variation in terms of housing and public buildings

2. The Midcentury New Town Movement Revitalizing the City through Urban Acupuncture

New Towns for New Industries

New Town emerged

- Self-contained and self-governing

- Built according to detailed plan on an undeveloped stretch of land

- Typically designed to serve mix of residential, civic, commercial, and industrial needs

Example: Guinea / Fria New Town (1956): New Towns for Resource Extraction in European Colonies

- Still under colonial rule to New Towns emerged mainly related to industrial activity and getting resources for European use

- Fria New Town built near French aluminium factory

- Main road in the middle and a centre

- White (mostly French) and blue colour (more indigenous) workers would live “together” but not quite

- Radburn Principle (in blue)

Image summary: An isometric technical diagram depicting the structural components of a reinforced concrete column and beam intersection. It shows three views: a top section featuring vertical rebar extending from a horizontal beam, a center column section with a concrete core encased in yellow insulation, and a right-side column section showing vertical rebar tying into a square stirrup assembly.

: Image summary: A diagram titled "PRINCIPES GENERAUX D'URBANISME" illustrating an urban planning concept centered on a "CENTRE DE LA CITE." The layout features four circular "UNITE DE VOISINAGE" (neighborhood units), each designed for approximately 2,500 inhabitants. These units are arranged around a central intersection and a vertical axis that leads "VERS L'USINE" (toward the factory) at the top and "VERS LES EXTENSIONS" (toward extensions) at the bottom. Each neighborhood unit contains designated zones for "habitations cadres" (executive housing), "habitations subalternes" (subordinate housing), an "école primaire" (primary school), a "centre commercial" (commercial center), and "espace vert" (green space). The diagram notes the differentiation of road widths based on speeds for "CIRCULATION MECANIQUE" and the separation of executive and subordinate housing within the units, while maintaining a mix within the city as a whole.

• 4 neighbourhoods with subcentres like schools

• Different housing types (depending on social level)

- Luxurious villas for white colour managers

- More modest housing with lots of outdoor dwelling spaces for workers

- related much more to local building and dwelling patterns

- Building technology not always fit for particular housing condition

- 2 different mobility systems to Automobility and passengers ○ Separated as much as possible

New Towns for Regional Development

Example: London / Stevenage New Town (1946): Planned Decentralization

- London grew extremely fast in the 20th century leads to became very crowded

- Arial bombing in the W.W.2 destroyed parts of the city

- New Town came into question implies more regional question implies Greater L.D.N, 1944 Plan by sir Patrick Abercrombie (1879 to 1957)

Image summary: An aerial photograph of a settlement or camp consisting of numerous small, white, single-story rectangular buildings with light-colored roofs. The structures are sparsely distributed across a dry, brown landscape with scattered trees and patches of sandy ground.

- Sir Patrick Abercrombie designed the greater London plan to suggested way to redistribute people in London

- Black ring: inner urban ring, very dense urbanization of the city centre

- White ring: Restructuring the hazard urban growth (ex. Make better streets) (hatched park)

• Green ring: Greenbelt, agriculture, stop construction

- Orange ring: Self-contained, autonomous New Towns connected to inner city of London by to main area of urban growth (orange dots should be cities)

○ Transportation systems

○ New radial highways

Image summary: A 1944 map titled Greater London Plan 1944, illustrating the concept of The Four Rings of urban development. The map features a central black core representing the Inner Urban Ring, surrounded by a light beige Suburban Ring, a green striped Green Belt Ring, and an Outer Country Ring. Red dots scattered across the outer regions mark the locations of New Towns.

designate a which promoted New ordation

Stevenage -> only pedestrians, no cars, one family houses - Stevenage: planed for 60,000 people to the master plan

Image summary: A series of three black and white photographs depicting a residential housing development. The images show rows of multi-story, modern houses with gabled roofs and brick facades, situated along paved pedestrian walkways and green spaces.

- First new town, 1946

- 46 kilometers north from London for 60'000 people by Gordon Stephenson

- Prototype for many New Towns to come

• They're related to many transport connections (by rail, by road, etcetera)

• Clear division between places for living and places for working

- 5 to 6 neighbourhoods with individual centres, made of secondary and primary schools, etcetera

- This multi-centre model would be repeated time after time

- The housing was constructed in standardized way but had a little bit of variation.

- New way of thinking about pedestrian and automobile domain in the city

Radburn Principle

In the middle of the neighbourhood there is a continuous pedestrian realm (in green)

• Pedestrian and driving are separated

Town centre just pedestrian (you could park outside of neighbourhood)

• Looks like Rotterdam

- In each neighbourhood there was a centre with

• Shops

• Art installation, sometimes symbolic to civic education (people that are educated)

• Fully pedestrianized

Sweden / Vällingby New Town (1954): A.B.C New Towns around Stockholm: Arbete-

Bostad-Centrum

- A.B.C Towns combining living, working and central functions

• 15 kilometers from Stockholm implies connected to Stockholm by fast public transportation

- Vällingby New Town

• Designed by Swedish ciam-members

।Image summary: Two black and white diagrams side-by-side. The left diagram is a conceptual site plan featuring a large central circle containing various zones and symbols, flanked by semi-circular green spaces and rectangular plots. The right diagram is a map of Stockholm showing the city boundary, transit lines for highways and the subway, and the location of suburban centers including Kista, Rinkeby, Spånga, Vällingby, Skärholmen, Skarpnäck, and Farsta.

- Idea of a centre (in black) and sort of ring around it with high and lower-density housing (in grey) and industry and places for working

• Recreational functions in the very city centre

• Shopping centre on top of metro line

• Largely pedestrianized

• Patterns on floor represent 1950 modernity leads to circles

• High rise in the centre, low density houses further away of the centre

- Diversified housing typologies leads to compact so higher density

- Relatively green landscape as collective realm

- Focused on young families

- In the housing neighbourhood you Can drive to your front door to car not separated from housing

- Nowadays called “10min city”

A New Generation of New Towns

Glasgow / Cumbernauld New Town (1955): Experimentation in New Town Developm

- Has a very scattered footprint leads to new town realised to help this

- Can house about 70'000 people

- About 20 kilometers from Glasgow, situated on a hill with

• Highway in the north in relation to industrial area

• Highway in the south in relation to railroads

• Concentrated figure in between the highways

- Very dense centre

- Megastructure where are functions were located

- Not only commercial and administrative activities

• Housing exists implies housing for bachelors

।Image summary: An outline plan map of a town layout. The map uses shaded regions to categorize land use, including residential areas, industry, town centers and sub-centers, and open space and agricultural land. Specific labeled facilities include primary schools (P), secondary schools (S), and hospitals (H). The plan identifies several neighborhoods such as Condorrat, Greenfaulds, Cad herkese, Kilsdrum, and Auchmill, and includes a designated area for Ravenswood Playing Fields (RPE). A railway and major roads provide transportation connectivity throughout the area. A scale of miles and a north arrow are provided for orientation.

Image summary: A technical architectural diagram of the Cumbernauld New Town centre by Geoffrey Copcutt. The plan displays a complex layout of interconnected buildings and walkways, with a legend indicating three development stages: Phase 1 in green, Phase 2 in dark grey, and Future Phases in light grey. Key labeled areas include the Future Training College, Public Information Office, and a Shopping Mall.

- Different neighbourhoods planned around town centre (walking distance)

- Multifunctional megastructure designed to bring people to the centre

- Interiorized centre of neighbourhoods less important than main centre

- Radburn principle: cars left in periphery while continuous green pedestrian realm inside of neighbourhood

→hope that by designing good infrastructure, good society would emerge

F.S V.L 06: New Capitals for New Democracies, New Institutions for Old

Democracies

Decolonialization was important in the post-war period 1950/60s. In particularly the movement happened in Asia and in some places in the African continent (example in India/Morocco). Colonial powers were questioned. Many countries became independent, what meant that this country thought about their own modernization and development. What usually led to building new capitals cities that should symbolize their freedom and capability.

Development was important in the post-war period:

Image summary: A map of Africa showing the dates of independence for various nations, categorized by their former colonial powers. A legend identifies the colonial powers as British (tan), French (pink), Spanish (orange), Belgian (light blue), Italian (yellow), and Portuguese (purple), while representing independent states in white and former German colonies in light green. Red stars on the map denote anti-colonial revolts or wars since 1945. Examples of independence dates include Morocco in 1956, Algeria in 1962, Nigeria in 1960, and Namibia in 1990.

Urban design commissions were given for new capitals and new modern cities, meaning that urban designers were getting big tasks to transform these cities in those decolonized countries.

Also Millions of dollars were used to modernize Europe implies Marshall Plan.

This led to:

- an uprising of the economy

- a baby boom

- new ideas of welfare and welfare state

- new ideas democratization

- new ideas education

- new ideas health

1. New Capitals for New Democracies to Constructing Capital Cities for Free

Citizens

Fort-Lamy in Chad (middle Africa) under Urban Apartheid

- used to be under French and British colonial rule

- 1962 they made a new capital in Fort-Lamy (N'Djamena) close by the border of Nigeria, Cameroon

- Idea to build a new city on the base of the colonial city

- Colonial city had 3 important parts in the city, which differ on their morphology and density

- City of the local population (indigenous city)

- The neighbourhood for the colonizers (in this example for the French)

- Sanitary zone to was an open zone detaching/separating those 2 parts of the city, so the middle part

- What should we do with this colonial structure?

• Decided to do a new city above the existing city

Image summary: A line drawing map of a city layout, featuring a grid system on the right and a radiating circular pattern in the center, superimposed over French text. A red, irregular hand-drawn loop circles a portion of the text and the lower-left section of the map.

Image summary: An urban planning map of a city, featuring a black-and-white street grid overlaid with a red-highlighted network of primary roads and arterial connections. The map shows a dense urban core to the right and a more open area toward a coastal shoreline on the left, with a French caption at the bottom referencing a project submitted to the government of the Republic of Turkey.

- And made a new structure erasing the sanitary zone and connecting those two colonial-zones

- An idea of a new urban neighbourhood that combined high raise housing, low rise housing with the goal to combine those 2 existing neighbourhoods of colonial time

- The new structure was called Stem; new branches with high raises or other houses would be developed along the street

:Image summary: An architectural cross-section drawing of a mixed-use urban development. The diagram depicts a sequence of buildings and open spaces labeled from left to right: Maison (House), Cour (Courtyard), Rue Pietons (Pedestrian Street), Cour (Courtyard), and Maison (House). The structure consists of two levels with figures of people throughout the interiors and outdoor areas. On the right side, curved black arrows indicate the flow of movement or air circulation moving from the exterior, through the ground floor, and exiting toward the upper level.

Fort Lamy, analysis of existing lowrise housing typologies, Candilis-Josic-Woods, 1962

Chandigarh, India: Acculturating Morphologies and Typologies

- India became independent in 1947

।Image summary: A page containing two hand-drawn architectural diagrams. The top diagram is a floor plan showing rooms labeled femme, homme, and jardin (garden), separated from a space labeled rue (street) by a dashed line. The bottom diagram is a conceptual architectural layout composed of interlocking, grey-shaded rectangular blocks arranged in an irregular, modular cluster, with a dashed arrow pointing from the street area of the first plan toward the second.

- The new prime minister wanted to do new regional capitals to constructing a new set of cities, as well as a new capital called Chandigarh

- Le Corbusier, co. and other Indian architects were commissioned to build the new capital in Chandigarh for about 0.5 Mio people

- Already existing first plan made by American planner Albert Meyer, that was used as base

- Non-orthogonal grid, fan-shaped grid with irregular cells

• Died in a plane crash

- Le Corbusier and his team developed their own plan without having to start from scratch

- Le Corbusier and co. started to analyse and understand the early settlements and topography by mapping the terrain - Late 1940s/beginning of 1950s: Le Corbusier proposed a plan based on orthogonal grid inserted in landscape composed of “sectors” to perpendicular to mountains

• Sector: 800m x 1200m

Each sector should be self-contained entity

• Everything in the sector should be reachable in 10 minute walking distance, which parallels the 10 minute city concept.

“Leisure valley” right by the river was leisure centre for city

Modern city with the importance about mobility especially cars

Fort Lamy, lowrise housing blocks, Candilis-Josic-Woods, 1962

- System of the 7-V (7 Vois)

- very strong hierarchy of transportation to hierarchy of roads created very rational way of movement in the city

○ V.1: fast roads connecting Chandigarh to other towns

○ V.2: Arterial roads

○ V.3: Fast vehicular roads

○ V.4: meandering shopping streets

○ V.5: sector circulation roads

- ☐ V.6: access roads to houses

○ V.7: footpaths, cycle tracks

• Busses would ply only on V.1, V.2, V.3 and V.4 roads

• A Wall should seal V.3 roads from the sectors

Image summary: A white line drawing on a black background depicting an urban planning grid for Chandigarh, India. The diagram features a network of intersecting roads labeled V.1 and V.2, dividing the area into rectangular sectors. Additional labels V.3, V.4, V.5, V.6, and V.7 are distributed throughout the blocks. Handwritten text at the bottom reads "Les 7 V à Chandigarh INDES" and notes "1ere etape: 150.000 hab.", indicating a first stage planned for 150,000 inhabitants.

- Capital Complex (political centre) should represent monumentality

- Very specific architecture features to new modern style integrating wide greet and water landscape

- Impressive canopies, tall arches, large columns arrow modern India

- Like the “Monument of Open Hand on Capitol” complex by Le Corbusier or the assembly haul

- Spector 17: Heart of initial grid

- Commercial sector, only sector that is non-residential sector

- Bigger and smaller squares with 4 story building around it

Image summary: A historical urban plan map of Chandigarh, showing a grid-like city layout divided into rectangular sectors. The map features a network of red lines marking primary roads and green shaded areas indicating parks and open spaces, with various sectors numerically labeled across the urban footprint.

- 4-story concrete structures (brutalist) to allowed for commercial activity, signs and symbols to have a place within the city for people to be

• Concrete frame for different commercial activities

- Other sectors were residential sectors that were self-contained to very green and introverted

• Different collective services proposed (all within a 10' form housing)

- Different housing typologies to combine different social classes, modern India shouldn't have a cast system

- combination of housing typologies

○ 1-story houses with big garden and also front garden

- several-levelled houses with generous roof terraces

- Working with climate and local materials and building techniques

○ very specific architecture with its own expression like self-shadowing wall with holes for cross-ventilation made from traditional bricks

○ Had to be connected with dwelling practices

- Developers understood that the city is not a static entity, but one that evolves

Image summary: A photograph of a single-story red building with a textured facade featuring recessed square patterns. The building has several white-framed windows and doorways and is fronted by a courtyard enclosed by a low red wall and black metal gates. Large trees provide shade over the structure, and several potted plants are placed along the wall and in the courtyard.

- Aesthetic Controls were established, and they were clearly defined framework

- Frames can be adapted and changed; by adding and adapting elements but the main picture remains in place

Islamabad: The city as Dwelling Infrastructure, Pakistan

- 1959: President decided to build new capital on the north of Pakistan called Islamabad

- Greek architect Konstantino Doxiadis was going to design a city for no less than 2.5 Mio inhabitants

• Design based on a grid

- Grid was defined by Margala Hills in the north and the Son River

• In between the two topography a system was developed of 2 big highways

- Highway that connected the city with other cities

○ allows fast connections within the city

- o highway defined sections of the city

- Made a national park

- Doxiadis searched for way to let city and its centre grow proportionally and simultaneously (in a grid)

- critique to concentric cities that grow while centre remains the same to he didn't want that

- To evade problems of distance for citizens, he came up with idea of Dinapolis, meaning a way to make the city and the centre grow simultaneously

- City should grow from East to West (city centre and industries follow this evolution)

- Residential areas are organized in big sectors

• 2 kilometers by 2 kilometers Sectors Surrounded by principal roads to freeways/highways

- Those Sectors were called “Class 5 Communities” of 40k people to very hierarchical, all classes included collective services and public spaces

○ Each Class 5 Community is made of 4 Class 4 Communities

- Class 4 Communities were made of 4 Class 3 Communities

○ Etc.

- Topography was integrated, city followed landscape

- Doxiadis saw city as a dynamic entity

○ Different income groups were situated together in a particular sector to no mixing like in Chandigarh

- Houses were not adaptable, but families would move within the same sector, starting in a small house for 2 people and as family grows, one could move in bigger house

○ Progressive house typologies

- Today everyone has modified the houses so it's not recognizable

Monumentality and the New Urban Landscape (a new territorial order) of Brasilia:

- President decided to create new capital “Brasilia” in which 50 years of progress could be made in 5 years to Lucio Costa won competition

- Lucio Costa made a project for 500k inhabitants

- He used a text and simple sketches

- Built in the middle of nowhere in 3 yrs

2 main axis

○ East-west axis to motorway

○ North-south axis leads to connecting ministries and parliament of Brasilia with the train station leads to 16 kilometers long

○ Where the axis crossed was a big bus station located

• Along motorway (east west axis) residential city is planned

- Planned In big blocks "Superquadras" of 300mx300m

- Much smaller than sectors of Islamabad or Chandigarh

○ Surrounded by a green belt = outline of the superquadras

Image summary: A hand-drawn architectural site plan titled P.P.B. featuring a symmetric, wing-shaped layout of rectangular building modules arranged in two curved arcs. The plan includes a central axial corridor and a legend on the left side listing various facility components.

○ The landscape gives the identity to the superquadras and not the architecture

Costas Idea:

City could be built in different ways  Limitation on the height

■ Houses had to be built on pilotis (columns) to so ground should be for the public

■ Ground should be green to Treescreating a roof for public life

○ Each superquadra was self-contained unit with collective services

In-between superquadras were other bigger collective services like shops and restaurants

2. New Institutions for Old Democracies

State Building for Mass Culture and Mass Education

- Idea of welfare state emerged:

- Idea of Democratization becomes important

• Access to higher education, cultures and healthcare to everyone

- concept of government in which state plays key role in the protection and promotion of economic and social welfare of citizens like unemployment benefits, healthcare, housing, etcetera

- It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to have the minimal provisions for good life

- Building for Culture and Community

• Building type of cultural centre emerged to many E.U states felt this was important

- Example: Stockholm's Kulturhuset (culture centre)

○ In order to build Kulturhuset, old city had to be demolished

• Gave access to culture for other people

- Theatre

- Actual Kulturhuset

○ Bank building

- ☐ Different public spaces

- Good connected to the public transportation

• Allowed for contact with culture and between citizens

- Should be very open, accessible, and transparent implies symbolizes values of democracy

- Building for Education: Britain's Plateglass Universities

• Education needed to be democratized

- New universities were following idea of giving access to education to many young men and women, and thus changing post-war society

- Brutalist architecture; a lot of concrete, very open and used a lot of plateglass (name emerged of that)

- Big university campuses that were sort of urban formation

○ Students could eat, meet,

- learn, sleep, etcetera

- East Anglia: Buildings were connected through continuous elevated pedestrian spine

- Student housing also connected with spine

Image summary: A detailed architectural model constructed from light-colored wood, depicting an expansive urban development. The design features a long, linear building with multiple levels and tiered balconies, accompanied by several stepped, pyramidal structures and elevated walkways connecting different sections across a green-colored base.

Private Actors Constructing Commercial Collectivity

- New centralities are created by private actors

- Diagram showing welfare State actors

State (most important)

• Community

Market

- New Commercial Initiatives

- New shopping centres emerged creating new centralities in cities

○ Not only profiting a commercial centrality

○ Also adding culture

- Cinemas

- Theatre

- exhibitions

- Example: Lulea Commercial Initiatives by Ralph Erskine

• “Subartic” Inner-City Shopping Centre

○ That created a new centrality because of

Commercial Program and parking

■ Cultural Program like cinema

Climate that they offered (winter you could meet there)

।Image summary: An architectural site plan of a university campus with numbered locations. The layout includes a bus terminal (1), car park (2), boiler house and workshops (3), arts building (4), chemistry building (5), mathematics and physics building (6), biology building (7), residences (8), staff houses (9), library (10), lecture theatres (11), and university house and senate house (12). A scale bar at the bottom indicates a length of 100 meters.

Commercial sector and state worked together to develop new urban entities

• Footprint had to be kept relatively small, as it was in the middle of the city to very verticalized with small footprint

City Construction by Civic Society

Civic Society Interventions often in collaboration with the state (rarely with market)

- Building for Culture and Community: Zürich Playgrounds - Civic Society collaboration with the state (Late 50s/beginning 60s) leads to pro juventuti

○ Building playgrounds

○ Community centres

- With few buildings attached to them

- When Zürich started urbanizing beyond initial boundaries, it had a lot of new housing settlements

• “New Centres” where build like in Wiedikon/Wipkingen

○ Very punctual and carefully designed interventions

- Civic Society taking the imitative to change the city: SESC w/ Lina Bo Bardi in Sao Paolo

- SESC (=a cooperation) generated small centres across brasil that are non-profit

- SESC Pompei was constructed in an old factory in Sao Paolo

○ Opening factory sight

○ Opening the old factory

○ Introducing new places

- Theatre

- Library

F.S V.L 07: Rethinking Masterplanning

Image summary: A photograph of a crowded indoor waiting area with people sitting in wooden booths. Large red, yellow, and blue inflatable rings hang from the industrial ceiling structure above the seated crowd.

Period of 1960/70s a lot of new towns new neighborhoods start to be realized and inhabitant:

- In France called “grand ensambles” & “ville nouvelle”

- A certain critic of the inhabitants toward those building is happening

• A lot of parking space

Too anonymous

- Other people start to criticize

- Jean Luc Godard – outline of new neighborhood comparing to anonymity of consumer products

- Henri Lefebvre (sociologist) wrote about the problem

- Gordon Cullen (british urban designer) to saying they were like prairie planets, that forgot public space

- Also some of the architects of the ciam who promoted the principles who defined those modern cities started to be critical about the results toInternal

Critic leads to The criticism of the ciam led to many architects developing alternatives leads to “Team 10”

1. Revised Typologies for the City

Alison and Peter Smithson: Reconceiving the Modern Typologies of Slab and Tower Block to Streets in the Air = Golden Lane Study

Golden Lane housing developed for the reconstruction of bombed neighborhood in London (1953) to give people affordable housing called Cluster City

- Alternative of the housing block to that tries to revise relation between housing and public space

- Also tries to errace economic indifference

- Housing typologies:

3 layers of Maisonette housing

- Street a like figures (yellow) = streets in the air to a resonance with Michiel Brinkman housing in Rotterdam

- from continuous public streets/galleries the maisonettes were reached

- Idea was a new morphology

- with these continuous streets in the air would make a new network of streets in the housing block

- Streets were supposed to be social spaces to meet people of all classes

• One could go from one housing area to another through streets patterns

- Idea of superimposed city to correct existing structure and social segregation of London

Economist Building by Alison and Peter Smithson

- Rethought idea of modernist tower block to could be inserted in the idea of the city fabric with squares, streets and galleries

- They took 3 Modernist Tower blocks

- Made a raised plaza

- Towers were related to city in terms of rhythm and materiality

- Built in modern construction techniques but facade attempts to relate to existing city

- Believed economy was foreshadowing element that could be gradually implemented throughout the city

Image summary: An isometric line drawing of a building complex featuring several structures of varying heights and architectural styles. The complex includes two tall, modern rectangular towers with grid-like facades and a shorter, classical building characterized by a pediment and arched entrance.

Image summary: A black and white photograph of a modern architectural space featuring tall, concrete rectangular columns and multi-story glass buildings. A man in a dark overcoat walks away from the viewer across a paved open plaza toward the buildings, while other distant figures are visible in the background.

2. Toward a Configurative Urban Discipline

Aldo van Eyck: The City as House and the House as City

- Interested in overcoming anonymity of the blocks built during postwar era

- "A house should be like a small city and a city should be like a large house"

- Precents a diagram where he discusses the relation of the social life and the build environment

• to structure urban development

• to Initiate a mix of private and collective urban functions

- to develop around the qualitative public space of the street

- Modern architects should understand value of architectural traditions:

• Symmetry

- controlled built environment

• vernacular tradition

- modern tradition for space

• movement

- Interested in symbolic dimension called dual phenomena

• dynamics - immutability

- centrality – dispersal

• unity-diversity

- open-closed

• introvert – extrovert

: A black and white graphic design containing two circular compositions framed by text. The left circle features a layout of architectural floor plans and a small 3D structural sketch, surrounded by text including the phrases "INMUTABILITY AND NECESSITY", "extensions of collective behavior", "of the mind", and "VERNACULAR UP THE BLAST". The right circle contains a dark, textured oval ring of small figures or shapes, surrounded by the text "FOR EACH MAN AND ALL MEN". Above the circles are the words "BY US" and "FOR US". Below the compositions, several lines of handwritten-style text discuss architecture, discovering oneself, and the shifting center.

- Designed the municipal orphanage (for 150 ophans) in Amsterdam

3 architectural traditions simentaliusly are combined

○ Pre-fabricated elements like columns leads to modern tradition

○ Columns themselves arrow classical tradition

○ Dome shaped roofs implies vernacular tradition

• Bigger urban complex

Kids could sleep and have social interactions

Image summary: An aerial black and white photograph of a sprawling, single-story modular building complex. The structure is composed of numerous interconnected square units, many of which feature pyramid-shaped roofs. The complex is arranged in a grid-like pattern with several open courtyards and is surrounded by a flat, open landscape with a road and a few cars nearby.

• Designed his building with small sized concrete modules to related to classical traditions (regular order, geometrical forms)

○ Placed on regular grid

○ Made up with columns and single dome

○ 8 larger modules were community spaces o Modules reached out into the environment in dynamic way

○ Was interested in thresholds

“Living groups” were smaller entities were orphans could live

Diagonal hallways leading to the "rooms"

○ Exception of one cell in the middle  admin. spot for the urban space

3. The Public Space of Stem and Web

Image summary: A black and white photograph showing a person running across a paved area next to a modern building. On the ground is a large, hand-drawn circle that the person is running alongside. The scene is partially shaded by the building's overhanging roof and a supporting column.

Candilis, Josic and Woods: Stem and Web as Alternatives for Urban Design

- Came up with 2 concepts

• Stem leads to structures urban development leads to along the street

Web leads to popular in postar period leads to allows different practices to be woven into a continuous patch of urban tissue

- Believed urban environment should be able to be modified and transformed over time

- Concept of stem criticized anonymity of big housing estates after W.W.2

- Suggested another way of planning starting from public spaces

- Based themselves on historical examples where street is structuring device but also social qualitative space

- Believed from stem with collective functions would make qualitative urban space and the city would develop from there

- Idea of web developed through stem

- Developed in Frankfurt, which was heavily bombed, leading to many open sites

• Stem are thought like streets like in a conventional city

- Idea that city started developing on that patterns (radical idea)

- On the web structure: open psaces platforms and important systems should be included to This web was a multilayer urban ground

- Developed system of stems that were interconnected

Openings in the decks differentiated every deck and let light in to believed that by defining decks, city would take on and develop further and thicker urban

• Various buildings connected through stems

• Was never realized

Image summary: A black and white photograph of an architectural model consisting of a complex, multi-layered arrangement of white rectangular slabs and vertical supports. The structure features interlocking horizontal planes at various heights and angles, creating a fragmented, staggered composition of open spaces and platforms.

Thresholds between inside and outside

- Freie Universität Berlin located in suburban neighbourhood made up of detached houses

- Main model for universities was modernist Highrise Block

○ Each department had own level, separating every domain

- Proposal to locate university in a landscaper (large and long) instead of skyscraper

○ Idea of the university should be changeable adaptable

○ Used idea of stems but in more irregular form

○ 3 systems rapidly leads to through these systems university could be created

- prefabricated reinforced concrete elements combined with steel beams and columns

■ facades using Corten (rusty) steel element that could be freely combined

- level of the interior divisions, creating panels to allow internal partitions to be changed easily and

- part of university was realized and extended but idea of dynamism never took place. Principles can still be seen today

4. Agency in Housing: Between Supports and Infill

: Image summary: An architectural site plan showing a dense, grid-like arrangement of rectangular building footprints and open courtyards. The plan consists of multiple tiers of structures separated by narrow corridors and larger open spaces, with a schematic cross-section drawing located directly below the main plan.

Netherlands, John Habraken and Stichting Architecten Research (S.A.R)

- Believed urban planning was too static

- Groundbreaking book from John Habraken where he searched alternative of top-down housing.

- Key was the support and infill

- Support (architects are responsible):

• Places with high lifespan

Structural systems

• Communal collective spaces like entrances and places to stay

- Infill (citizens had to take responsibility. Can be integrated in planning process):

• Places with shorter lifespan

Collective more individual level

Image summary: A diagram illustrating the relationship between decision-making levels in urban planning and their corresponding physical scales and time spans. The diagram features five levels of occupants—ranging from neighbourhood to room—each exerting influence or control over specific territorial units. These territorial units are depicted in circular insets representing different plan levels: land-use, tissue, support, house-allocation, and infill. Below these levels, the diagram assigns time spans to each category, noting 100 years for the support level, 25 years for house allocation, and 10 to 20 years for the infill level, while the land-use and tissue levels are marked with question marks.

- Talked about open building

- Distinct levels of intervention in the built environment, such as those represented by “support” and “infill”, or by urban design and architecture

- Users/inhabitants may make design decisions as well

- Built environment in constant transformation and change must be recognized and understood

- Built environment is product of ongoing, never ending, design process in which environment transforms part by part

- John Habraken started big foundation for architectural research where he was developing new method to create new urban environments

- Pependrecht Project by Frans Van Der Werf 1974

After support and outdoor realm was created by architects, rest was built after private 2-step consultations with different inhabitants

○ 1st step:

layout of apartment

○ 2nd step:

layout of facades

different facades depending on the rooms

large diversity of privacy and opening of facades in terms of materiality and colour

→ this resulted in very vivid and diverse urban environment with outdoor spaces, etcetera

support defined by designer and infill defined by inhabitants

5. Systems Thinking through Patterns and Clusters

Image summary: An architectural floor plan drawing of a residential building complex arranged in a C-shaped layout around a central open courtyard. The plan shows multiple interconnected living units with internal divisions for rooms and corridors.

Image summary: A photograph of a crowded outdoor courtyard surrounded by multi-story residential buildings with distinctive steep, gabled roofs. A large group of people, many wearing red shirts, are gathered in the open space between the buildings.

Peru, The Concept of the Growing House as the Basic Component of Urban Design: Previ Lima Housing Competition

- Previ competition was big project to various international architects came to plan new urban environment

- Houses should grow and transform over time • Constructed by contractors

• Should transform to dwelling needs of inhabitants through time

- Idea of cluster conceived through proposal of James Stirling with L-shaped houses

- Idea was as need of family evolved, house could be extended by adding new units and extra floors to also allowed for more than 1 family to live there

• On 40 hectars 1100 families could live

: Image summary: An architectural floor plan or site layout drawing of a repetitive complex of buildings. The layout consists of several identical, symmetrical clusters of small, interconnected rooms or compartments arranged in a grid-like pattern, separated by narrow walkways or courtyards. At the top left, text reads PERU.

• Shops became part of houses as utility of rooms developed

• Combining idea of cells and easy construction

- Particular construction system

• Precast and prefabricated elements

• Central courtyard allowing light and vertical circulation

• Inhabitants could adjust house to their own needs

- Architects started thinking about clustering for houses to become a city

- Idea was that bigger and bigger clusters would be made, constructing city in the process

- Way of development of city by starting with single houses and clustering them

• Growing horizontal and vertical

→ Previ Lima competition never realized but some parts were constructed but never applied on bigger scale

6. Thinking the City as Metabolism

Kenzo Tange's Tokyo Bay Scheme

- Concept of metabolism created by Japanese architects

• Focused on idea of change and growth of the city

Believed city could be compared to biological organism and human society related to constant change and growth

Believed they needed to develop more dynamical attitude

And didn't see city as machine

- Kenzo Tange developed plan for Tokyo Bay in 1960s to developed new order which allowed for external expansion and internal regeneration of the city

- External expansion:

Image summary: A line drawing comparing an open system to a closed system. The open system is depicted as a vertical channel with arrows pointing inward and outward, intersected by multiple horizontal lines. The closed system is shown as a sequence of three stages progressing downward: beginning with a single small circle, followed by a cluster of smaller circles, and ending in a larger, dense cluster of interconnected circles.

- Said that traditional way city is developed creates a closed system to wanted open system represented by linear structure

- Within bay of Tokyo, lineal structure about 30 kilometers was made and would become

Image summary: A black and white photograph depicting a model of Habitat 67, designed by Moshe Safdie, featuring a complex, modular arrangement of concrete cubic forms stacked in an organic, staggered layout over a landscape.

○ Place with civic access, interlocking mobility loops and allowing to reach different areas of the city and to continuously grow

○ Believed that circulation system would function neighbourhood wide, city wide, etcetera

- Internal regeneration:

• Floating housing with idea of various terraces

- Different forms of housing leads to could be adapted and changed depending on conditions

→ never realized but many architects started building according to this principle

7. Urban Megastructures between Human-Centered and Process-Driven

Urban Design Approaches

: Image summary: A photograph of Habitat 67, an architectural complex designed by Moshe Safdie, consisting of a dense, irregular arrangement of stacked concrete cubic modules that create a staggered, mountain-like residential structure.

- 1967: Montreal World Faire where:

new ideas emerged

• new ways of making spaces

• new ways of constructing the urban environment

• densifying centre but still giving people comfort of suburban house

- Safdie's project was in one of the islands and was connected to rest of the city through bridges

• Responding to the new idea of urbanity and construction

- Capable of reproducing single habitat cells

○ In an environment with high urban density

○ The human relationship and the comfort of a single house

○ to new response on how to design large dense housing estate with single habitat cells

- Proposed 20-story high A-frame structure where different housing could be stacked

- Idea changed into creating prefabricated housing units that could be load bearing and could be stacked

- System of how houses could be stacked depending on supporting elements of the different units

- o Houses with different forms to create bigger and smaller apartments with outdoor spaces for each one

- Living union had a Masonite structure

project never grew as intended

Byker Housing by Ralph Erskine

- Questioned how we can give people a more clear presence in the real estate leads to bigger housing

- Biker Wall/Housing was a residential neighborhood in Newcastle upon the Tyme with old, terraced housing rows to working class

- Residents wanted to stay but government decided they had to go

: A series of twelve line drawings showing different isometric configurations of three identical rectangular blocks. The blocks are stacked and overlapped in various L-shaped and staggered arrangements, organized in two columns of six figures each.

Image summary: A black and white aerial photograph showing a dense urban residential area characterized by long, uniform rows of terraced housing. A single straight street cuts through the neighborhood, and in the foreground, a large, multi-story commercial building with a flat roof and a systematic facade stands in contrast to the smaller surrounding homes.

- 1966: Byker area developed to make more decent environment by Erskin

- Extensive process of public consultation, which follows distinct strategies:

- Pilot scheme was set up involving 46 households working with architects in the design of their future homes

• Office on site to in the middle of the development

- Demolition of the existing houses should proceed apace with construction of the new houses

- No uniform treatment of the whole area

• Serpentine shaped lineal floor of houses as backbone of area

- Barrier created, which blocked the wind and noise of the streets

- Variation of color and materiality to break monotony of previous plans and to create individuality

• Strong idea of communal spaces

• Landscape carefully thought out

- no Uniform Treatment of the whole area

Image summary: A black and white aerial photograph of a town featuring a mix of dense residential housing and open green spaces. A winding road or canal cuts through the landscape, separating clusters of tightly packed houses from a large, open rectangular field and a smaller church building on the right side.

F.S V.L 08: The Countercultural Experiments with Urbanity

Counterculture = a culutre with values and morals that run counter those of the established scoiety

- 1960 is a period of

Of the cold war: U.S (capitalistic) versus Soviet Union (socialist/communist)

○ Geopolitical symbolic fight, also about how modern life should look like

○ They fought in other territory for example Vietnam war

Europe: The Idea of the welfare Estate

o form of government in which the state protects and promotes the economic and social well-being of its citizens

○ based upon the principles of equal opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for citizens

○ Paternalistic view implies the state knows what is good and bad for you

1960s: time of great consumption culture

People bought more and more commodities

○ Club of Rome (scientists) criticized the people: The Limits to growth, 1972 in a book

People demonstrating against Vietnam war

Countercultures movement

Citizens formed countercultural movements:

☐ Tried to find alternative ways of living together using resources

○ Environment (ecology) and society concerns leads to pollution

○ Idea of Self-determination, meaning that the state should not impose how they lived to more authentic ways

• New research of authentic ways of living

1. Freedom and Self-Determination

- The Nomadism and Collective Grounds of New Babylon

- Dutch artist-urban designer (Constant Anton Nieuwenhuyse) made new project called New

○ New Babylon to a negative biblical figure

- Core of this city is self-determination.

○ Reaction to consumerism

○ Reaction to the state's attitudes

• Started from radical hypothesis:

- Ongoing industrialization will free man from labour duties and offer them possibilities to engage in a different way with the built environment to man didn't have to work so they could engage with city around them

• Inspired by book “homo ludens (=playing man)” of Johan Huizinga

○ Play as central activity in flourishing societies

○ 5 characteristics of play:

- Free

- Distinct from “ordinary” life both as to locality and duration

- Creates order

- Connected with no material interest

- No profit can be gained from it

○ Homo Faber, the man who is working to to Homo Ludens, the man who is playing

• Constant said we needed

○ a new city and new culture

○ Playful and creative human being at the center to so the Homo Ludens

○ Idea of nomadic life, in which dwelling has to be reinvented constantly by citizens to no static buildings

○ In order to think of the new Carachter of the City we needed:

- New form of architecture

- atmosphere (climatholocial)

- symbol (psychological)

- New environment made of ladders, stairs and platforms

- inviting for new level of dwelling that can be exchanged and changed through time

○ The new urban environment was characterized of the principle of Extreme hospitality to always

Image summary: An abstract drawing consisting of a complex network of intersecting diagonal and vertical lines, resembling scaffolding or ladders. The composition features several small, stylized human figures positioned at various points on the structures, with splashes of yellow, orange, and red across the background and structural elements.

welcoming to strangers in your house, leading to discussion of how and where to live

Idea developed through models

○ Ground of the city is for everyone implies collectively practiced

○ A dense urban plan

○ Free-shaped labyrinthian structure (sectors)

people could define their dwelling models & public space

■ contradictory to modernist ideas where dwelling is defined and perfect to the cm, as well as transparent

could be projected on unurbanized territories and existing territories (adding new layer of freedom)

• was acritique to planned and strict cities

Labyrinthian city -> agrigation of different platforms and stairs

Image summary: An abstract painting featuring a network of white, block-like geometric shapes connected by thin black lines across a textured yellow and orange background. The white shapes vary in size and orientation, creating a fragmented, grid-like structure that resembles an aerial map or architectural blueprint, with small accents of black and red scattered throughout the composition.

- Accommodating Citizens Agency in the Ville spatiale

- Yonna Friedman (hungarian-French architect) who developed la Ville Spatial as Superimposed Urban Condition

- He was critical towards oppressive, strict city

- Hypothesis: architect and urban designers, where incapable of providing the right condition for people to live in. Citizens should become architect and urban planner themselves - Friedmann

- Suggestion: technique allows a new development of urban planning: that of the three-dimensional city; it involves multiplying the original surface area of the city using raised surfaces to Suggestion Big space frame as infrastructure

- Spatial city based on big space-framed structures with all elements of the city introduced

- Locating Housing, that the inhabitant had to fashion

○ Agriculture is located

- Daylight has to reach the ground floor of the city

- infrastructure (bzw. Big space frame) that was based on a 6x6m modules which were imposed to already existing city

• No premade plan to irregular grids

- only rule was one should respect daylight

- within that bigger infrastructure, there is Mobile architecture that allowed inhabitants to decid

○ form, mobility, etcetera

○ citizens as builders as he allowed them to assemble their own dwellings to that should be lightweight, so easy changeable

- Believed this would lead to three-dimensional city, which would allow for

○ higher density

- layers of situating urban functions

Image summary: This composite image features a grid of hand-drawn sketches exploring the concept of the Ville Spatiale, or spatial city, alongside a detailed diagram showing a modular structural grid. The sketches explain the Ville Spatiale as a flexible, irregular urban infrastructure where individual homes and patterns can be inserted without a master plan, emphasizing a society of individualists. The accompanying diagram illustrates this with a repeating pattern of intersecting circles and squares, where some square units are highlighted in orange to represent occupied or active spaces within the larger, open-ended structural framework.

- ☐ way of not creating a strict environment but rather emancipatory one

- Flatwriter = aka as repetoir of choises: layout of dwellings an interrelation of dwellings to to help plan your own dwelling

- Special keyboard with several forms, which could be combined in dwellings

- “the power of individual expression will thus become a random composition (...) and the city becomes once again what it has always been: a theater of life”

- Imagined new city could be projected in already given infrastructures like streets and canals

• Tried to show how Ville Spatial could be like extra layer on top of the city, enriching areas that were preserved for housing, making the city a multifunctional city

।Image summary: Two conceptual architectural drawings depicting futuristic, complex urban structures with intersecting geometric planes and lines. The left drawing features a deep perspective of a corridor or street under a red sky, with small human figures walking among massive, overlapping white blocks. The right drawing is a denser, more chaotic overhead view of interlocking white cubic forms and structural lines against a blue background.

- Architecture as Poetic Act in Ciudad Abierta (= open city), in 1969

- The Open City in Valparaiso, Chile (1969): An Experiment in Living as a Guest

• Started by professors and students of architecture school of Valparaiso

- Professor bought 270 hectares of land, idea of 3 aspects:

○ Self-determination (self buildet)

○ Ecology

- Communal life

- Idea was to create new form of city, not guided by state planning but rather more about self-building and the exchange among citizens

○ Idea of exchange installed from an early moment by creating Agoras

- O Agoras followed shape of land as a way of showing respect to the land todoesn't have a big impact on it

○ Important to walk through the territory to find right spot to self-build

○ Use of local materials and materials found in the land

- This way of building could be adapted and changed through time

- Houses were called Ospederias to place of hospitality where you were a guest for a while and other could be a guest with or after you over time

- Structure reflected ways of living and building together to today, professor and students keep on building. Idea of being guests remains

- Walter Segal's Recipe for Self-Builders

• British architect, lived in C.H and trained as architect in Berlin

- 1962, Highgate London: built temporary house for his own use while his house was constructed

- Using material from doing-yourself shop

- ☐ Touching the material as less as possible

○ Made of off-the-shelves timber components

○ Based on carpentering and without cement, etcetera

○ Constructed very cheaply (7000 chf) and in 2 weeks

- o Rooms could be altered by moving position of the walls

- Built on concrete slabs

Image summary: A black and white photograph of a wooden structural frame under construction, consisting of vertical posts supporting a series of horizontal beams and a slanted upper section, situated outdoors with trees and a building in the background.

○ Lake on a roof kept house cold in summer

House could have live of 40 years

o House could be decontracted and reused

• Self-constructed to led to him making manuals for people in need in Lewisham

L.D.N to construct and design own houses called The Segal Method

- Step-by-step, easy to follow method with text and pictures

- People started constructing own houses

○ He thought it was an attitude of mind and not a constructing system

○ Citizens became active agents in the built environment, still having freedom to design their own way to allowed them to intervene in their built environment

- 1970s: housing boom and city councils started giving citizens the opportunity to create own houses with the Segal Method to only 27 houses were built

2. Towards the Urban Ecology

- Light Forms of Dwelling in Drop:

America's First Back-to-the-Land Counterculture Commune

- 1965: group of students of Kansas bought slot in Trinidad and created the Drop City

○ Idea of

- Idea of ecology leads to being respectful of the land territory

- Idea of Communal Life

- Idea to reuse materials or use materials that you could find everywhere like wood

○ With self-constructed dwelling environment

○ Made with lightweight geodesic domes, creating new sort of houses on the landscape

■ Constructed out of wood and covered with steel panels recovered from old cars racks (reuse)

○ Created a sense of communal way of life

: Image summary: A black and white line drawing mapping a settlement in a desert landscape beneath a mesa and a rising sun. The map identifies several structures including a "grand dome commun," an "atelier," and "poulailler." A population list in the bottom right corner notes 10 boys, 3 girls, 5 children, as well as dogs, chickens, and cats. A road to the right is labeled "TRINIDAD 5 KMS."

Image summary: A photograph of two shirtless men working on a large, dome-shaped structure constructed from mismatched panels of various colors and materials. One man is standing on a ladder on the left side of the dome, and another is perched on a ladder on the right side, near the top.

○ They were about self-construction and reusing materials as way of relating to the earth and its resources

○ Experimented with solar energy and storing heat in rocks to attempts to deal with resources in more convenient way.

○ Became more of a tourist attraction

- Building the Arcological City to Ecology in Urban Design

• Paolo Soleri (Italian architect) that worked for Frank Loyd Wright

- Project in Sonora Desert (1970), Arizona trying to use the sight to build a house using earth complimenting with cheap material toDom houses that where subterrain

• Dome House

○ Consisted of 2 parts

Sleeping quarters leads to cool

Living room with glass dome to able to generate heat in the winter, could also be opened and had a water system to cool the house

○ First step to archology to mix of architecture and ecology (a way to design with climate)

O Earthed houses as he used the earth to

construct them

Image summary: A photograph of a geodesic dome structure with a transparent, multi-paneled roof. A man stands atop the curved roof, looking down. Inside the dome, a bed with striped bedding and a patterned cushion are visible.

Image summary: A photograph of an interior space featuring a heavy, organic architectural style characterized by thick, sculpted concrete supports and vaulted ceilings. The structure resembles a series of interlocking, branch-like pillars and beams that create an uneven, cavernous ceiling with integrated skylights allowing natural light to filter through.

■ Created molds in the earth making a system of ribs, applying plastic sheets, and reinforced steel and casting concrete

After the casting he took away the earth under the concrete structure

○ Named Cosanti  Trying to use with local material and not imported material

○ Sort of bioclimatic architecture: way of designing buildings based on the local climate, with the aim of ensuring thermal comfort using environmental resources.

• 1960: Mesacity

○ Using local material, that can be vertically pilled

Location: arid highland

designed from idea of cosmic potentials, which meant to relate to the resources and energy that were local and even recycled

synergy of ethnicities

○ high density: 2 million inhabitants / 100 acres (40 ha)

○ Called Arcosanti, which means anti materialism

made with local materials to construct new sort of architecture

taking idea of more ecological way of living into account

saving way of using resources

○ to idea of a new city with a new urban morphology

: Architectural line drawing of a complex of futuristic, organic-shaped buildings characterized by curved, tapering walls and horizontal striations. The structures feature irregular, bowl-like forms and tiered levels, with some sections supported by slender, diagonal pillars. The image is signed "P.V., AUGUST 89" in the lower right corner.

Image summary: A wide-angle photograph of a landscape featuring the ruins of a concrete industrial or military complex. The ruins consist of several large, partially collapsed structures with arched openings and skeletal walls, situated in a vast, arid plain with sparse vegetation and distant rolling hills under a cloudy sky.

- using local resources and working with different elements like water, sunlight, earth, etcetera

- Today, up to 7k people work on this but it remains an experiment, still

people that help building it

○ denies consumerist society

○ leads to part of the countercultural movement

- Esoscores at the Sea Ranch, Sonoma County, California (1964): An Antidote to

Suburban Sprawl, Consumerism, and Individualism

• North L.A

- The Sea Ranch: landscape hallway forested and hallway open land to question on how to urbanize it

Lawrence Halprin gathered group of architects, urban designers, etcetera to urbanize The Sea Ranch.

○ Set of principles developed

Image summary: A hand-drawn architectural site plan and landscape sketch for Sea Ranch, created by Lawrence Halprin & Associates. The drawing illustrates a coastal strip of land between the Zualala River and the Pacific Ocean, featuring handwritten planning directives such as keep houses back of trees, keep coast open, and cluster all houses on ocean terrace. The map includes labels for the Pacific Ocean and Zualala River, notes the site is 5000 acres, and is titled Locational Score.

■ All housing units had to be set back about 30m from coastline, so it would remain an untouched area

■ Cypresses and other local vegetation would be maintained a structuring device, as a landscape element

■ All housing units had to be clustered to leave as much common land as possible ( to against detached houses)

☐ Idea of common land was dominant

A feeling of a community in which the whole was more important and more dominant than its parts ... and link buildings and nature into an organized whole rather than just a group of pretty houses ... which did not destroy, but rather enhanced the natural beauty we

had been given

▪ to criticism of the suburban way of living ○ Only native vegetation could be added

Sea Ranch presented as an ecological urban design project in relation to local environment

right arrow respect for nature

Presented in design brochure where they defined set of guidelines for The Sea Ranch

3. Embracing Consumer Culture and Technology

- Archigram: Urbanity as Event in the Instant City

Image summary: A photograph of a rustic, multi-leveled wooden building complex with weathered grey siding and varied rooflines, situated on a grassy coastline overlooking the ocean under a clear blue sky.

• Archigram composed of british architects (David Greene, Warren Chalk, Peter Cook, Michael Webb, Ron Herron, Dennis Crompton)

• Archigram was a group that embraced consumer culture, particularly advertisements in relation to pop culture and technology

Image summary: A black and white line drawing titled "BEFORE IC: A SLEEPING TOWN" depicting a simplified town skyline. The drawing includes various building silhouettes, a hot air balloon, and a building labeled "LOCAL IC HQ".

।Figure 4 summary: An architectural line drawing titled HIGHEST INTENSITY depicting a conceptual structure called INSTANT CITY. The drawing shows a large, oval, canopy-like superstructure hovering over a densely packed urban environment that includes an OUTDOOR THEATRE and various buildings.

: Figure 2 summary: An architectural line drawing titled DESCENT depicts a large, ellipsoid floating structure labeled INSTANT CITY positioned above an existing urban cityscape. A network of cables and tethered structures, including a TENT and EQUIPMENT, connect the floating city to ground-level buildings, including a TOWN HALL.

Image summary: A black and white architectural architectural line drawing titled INFILTRATION that depicts a conceptual urban landscape. The scene features a variety of buildings and structures, including an INFOCENTER, a COACH STATION, and a town hall, with the words counter action town spaced across the middle. A large, abstract curved structural form looms in the upper left, and a tower-like structure stands on the right.

Image summary: An architectural line drawing titled EVENT 3 depicting a concept called INSTANT CITY. The drawing shows a massive, elliptical, blimp-like structure floating above a city landscape, with draped fabric or netting extending from its underside down to the ground level. The city below contains various buildings, including one labeled SQUARE BECOMES THEATRE, where a crowd of people has gathered.

• Started thinking about how disposable character of consumer culture would be used in urban design to Instant City

- Asked themselves what would happen if disposable character of consumer culture and short-term temporalities would be brought to the city

- Instant City (=I.C) (a travelling monopoly) had to do with disposable and short character and no longer a perfect plan for a long-term city

○ Before I.C goes to A Sleeping town (a normal town)

- ☐ Then the I.C is comes

- Mobile flows of architecture supported by lightweight technologies

- making different events and changing public room

- Intensity in the city where people could create new practices and ways of living

- Urban Action Tune-Up to affecting urban environment for a short time and leaving again to urban design not as a blueprint for perfect ideal but related to consumer culture and pop culture

Condominium One at Sea Ranch by MLTW, ca. 1965

Figure 6 summary: A conceptual line drawing titled NETWORK TAKES OVER depicting a city skyline where various architectural structures are integrated into a system. Key labeled elements include a NATIONAL NETWORK CITY infocentre, an eventcentre, and the phrase METROPOLIS: towns together, with mentions of being linked by air and landline.

- Continuous Monument for Global Urbanization

Superstudio, in Italy

Radically impressing consumer society

○ What would it mean if we think start to think the generic character (of consumer good) in the build environment and urban environment?

○ Made histograms that where generic way to that you could use to build furniture or could be used in cities as bridges or plaza

- Homogeneity and Technology in the No-Stop City

- Italian Architecture group called Archizoom

Image summary: A surrealist digital collage featuring a young girl in a white dress standing on a floating, rectangular patch of rocky ground. She holds a shovel and is surrounded by scattered debris, including a single purple chair and several dark, fallen logs. This central scene is superimposed onto a blue sky background overlaid with a white perspective grid. Below the main image is a row of five smaller panels containing text and additional fragmented images of figures in similar landscape settings.

- Modernization and Technologies makes it possible to have technology all over the territory

• Developed new city called Non-Stop City with a conventional form of city

- Started from idea that due to technologies, it was possible to inhabit whole world

- "The metropolis ceases to be a “place” to become a “condition: in fact it is just this condition which is made to circulate uniformly, through consumer products in the social phenomenon. The future dimension of the metropolis coincides with that of the market" - Archizoom

○ Want to embrace mass production produced infinite urban decors

- Radically embraced ideas of pop culture and consumer culture

• Residential parking as condition for inhabitants

- Bigger patches of urban fabric (residential parkings) located in the territory.

○ Green parks on top of urban fabric

- Patches composed of tubular railroad systems and motorways, as well as deliver and parking paces

- Railroad systems and motorways allowed for repeating patches to be connected

○ In between park layer and bottom layer were

।Image summary: A photograph shows a large-scale architectural or urban planning model featuring a grid of white, rectangular blocks with maze-like pathways on top, set upon a green surface divided by white lines. Small, dark green textured clusters and rows of tiny white rectangular markers are distributed across the layout.

residential dwellings leads to very monotone as they were coordinated

- Dynamic idea of rooms as they could be designed freely

- Idea was that there would be continuous form of information

- Way of living similar to camping, technology or being reduced to absolute minimum

F.S V.L 09: The Postmodern City: From Neonationalism to Neoliberalism

Urban planning & design becomes the focus of critics:

- Criticizing the theories of the charter of Athens (1933)

- Criticizing the Theory of Team 10 and the Japanese Metabolists

- The effects of U.D on historical city

• Some neighbourhoods are erased and replaced by modern design recipe

- Important critic in the 1960s – 70s is Jane Jacobs (American)

- She reacted to modern planning

- Against paternalistic planning  planners, architects and state decide what is good for the people

- The redevelopment projects are going to erase the tradition of the cities and are going to look all a like

- Internal paradox of urban design, trying to make cities better, at the same time destroying some of the characteristic and qualities of the city

• Downtown is for the people

• Alternatives

○ Significance of sidewalks

- central mechanism in maintaining order of the city

○ Think City of neighbourhood

- About 7'000 residents

- A critic Gordon Cullen (British)

- How are you walking through historical cities

- What are you experiencing

1. Architecture and Territory

Image summary: A book cover for The Concise Townscape by Gordon Cullen features a black and white illustration of a stark urban landscape with a few small houses and a tall building. In the foreground, a figure leans over a curved wall, sketching a detailed, orange-lined townscape with buildings and labels including Black Lion and Salem directly onto the ground.

- Vittorio Gregotti (Italian architect) writes a book in 1966 in which he promotes a thinking of architecture not only in the context of the historical city, but in the context of the territory

He suggests that the territory is largely man-made: Infrastructure leads to Roads, Train, Water, Agriculture, etcetera

• Urban Design should start to relate to the territory

- University of Calabria 1970s: The territory is the point of departure, the building stands between a train station and the highway (between the manmade (landscape))

○ The Campus is a linear structure

○ about 3 kilometers long

○ The territory is defined by

- man-made infrastructure (Train station & highway)

- natural elements like topography

Image summary: A black and white photograph of a physical architectural scale model depicting a complex of buildings integrated into a steep, contoured hillside. The model shows a series of tall, blocky structures positioned along the slopes, connected by a long, linear central spine or walkway that runs horizontally across the terrain.

o Relation between the new structure and the natural characteristic of the territory will decide on the features of the new urban design project:

Spine is the main circulation axis of this spine

Student housing is located on the higher parts of the topography

The factories and laboratories are located around the spine

Collective service, sport fields and administration of university are in the end of the spine

○ Faculty building are modular buildings that react on the topography

Different hights

Outdoor rooms like terraces are created

☑ Covered outdoor room

Physical and visually relation with the territory

2. History and Typology

- The Life and History of the Urban Tissue

Image summary: A photograph of a wide concrete path leading toward a large, rectangular reddish-brown architectural structure. The structure consists of two parallel wings flanking a central open gateway, with a horizontal beam connecting them across the top. A string of small, multicolored flags hangs across the gap between the wings. The scene is set under a blue sky with white clouds.

- Saverio Muratori (Italian architect) made an analysis of Venice (1959)

• Architect should look at the city and understand the city as a:

- historical matter

○ An organism that is in continuous evolution.

○ the historic city not as something static but something dynamic

- He looks at the historic buildings in 2 aspects:

○ Type

- Organism

• Role of urban designer: identify 2 structural nexus

○ Concrete existence of a city

○ Gradual temporal development

- Material artefact

○ Expression of

- Social

- Economic

■ cultural life

○ Permanence trough time

- On one Hand the City is changing, adapting and transforming & on the other hand it is also something that has a curtain permanence through time

- Muratoris analysed the Venice in small scale: How did the houses develop?

- always permanence and change within an artifact

○ Ex. The courtyard stayed the same, the interior of the house changed

- Muratori is saying that the past includes the future

- The city is a place that represents permanence and change, that we can dived in 3 levels:

○ Typology leads to smallest level leads to level of the single building

○ urban tissue/Morphology  several buildings and how they work together

- organism implies the city as whole

- Muratori designed a new neighbourhood in Venice:

○ used the idea of change and permanence.

- Typology

- urban tissue

- organism

○ He worked with three different proposals:

- The water-based system: The neighbourhood is made of little

- Land and water-based system: Large entities, system of canals, open block structure to represents the “urban tissue”

- Land based system: Big urban blocks, the city as large entity to represents the „organism“

Image summary: An architectural site plan titled "ESTUARIO", specifically "Tavola 4", illustrating a proposed residential quarter in the Barbana di S. Giuliano area of Venice. The map shows a cluster of organized, repeated modular building blocks arranged in a residential grid, integrated into a landscape of waterways and green spaces. The plan includes a legend for land use and infrastructure, a scale of 1:2000, and a north arrow, depicting the layout of buildings relative to the surrounding roads and water bodies.

- The three proposals describe three ways of living in the city

- Urban design is about testifying historical hypothesis and making a choice

- Venice needs to be looked at as an artifact that changed over time

- Collective Memory and Urban Artefacts

- Aldo Rossi wrote a book „the architecture of the city“

- city as a man-made object, a work of art leads to artifact

- city has a temporal dimension, a before and an after. (longue durée)

- Artifacts have a temporal dimension

• a before and an after

- but are somehow permanent

- Artifacts are collective memory

- city is composed of

- ☑ dwellings (housing)

- primary elements or artifacts (public buildings/non housing)

○ the city is an expression of how society have dealt with question of housing

○ the city is always expressions of a certain culture, politics, culture, economy

- For rossi the city is all about

○ Housing

○ Big Artifacts implies that determine the city

- looking at change arrow Berlins housing in 3 time periods

○ 1800: really dense

- ☐ Later in 19th century: lighter because of courtyards

○ 20th century: not only about light and air leads to now also about green collective spaces

○ Housing typologies change over time, which implies that cultural ideas of what good housing is change permanence in the city:

For example, the roman amphitheatres still stand today or left at least an imprint on the city

• Urban artifacts: building, street, district

history: artifact is expression of historically different social, economic and cultural realities

○ Permanence: artifact maintains a certain formal and material stability

○ individuality: artifact is unique formal and material entity

Collective memory: artifacts become part of collective memory of its people. The city is the locus of the collective memory. Even though the artifacts are destroyed they have still an impact on the city. Or are even rebuild

• Teatro del Mondo 1979: Temporary project for Venice

Rossi made a new design for a theater that is based on the collective memory of Venice: the floating architecture that was related to carnival

The Theater was constructed elsewhere and sailed into Venice for a while to make an imprint on the city. Then left again

○ The city can still grow, even temporarily and also historical parts of the city can be changed.

Berlin project for I.B.A:

Rossi taps into the idea of the bigger Berlin building block:

Image summary: A complex black and white surrealist collage blending architectural blueprints, urban maps, and figurative elements. The composition features a dense grid of room layouts and structural sections on the left, a radial city map on the right, and fragmented landscapes including rocky terrain and geometric shapes at the bottom. Human elements are integrated into the scene, including a silhouette of a person standing before a window and a classical figure leaning over the curved edge of the map from the top right corner.

The collective memory of the Berlin building block was about multiple courtyards within a perimeter block

His building block is engaging with the existing city and working with the collective memory

○ This created a kind of new building block for Berlin

Urban block

Fassade

Aldo Rossi, Citta' Analoga, 1976, not every idea will get realizes but a lot will influence

- The Grossform and the City

Image summary: A watercolor painting of a row of contiguous multi-story city buildings under a blue sky. The buildings vary in architectural style, height, and color, featuring a mix of red, yellow, green, and beige facades with numerous windows and ground-level storefronts.

• Matthias Ungers published a book “Grossformen in Wohnungsbau” in 1966

○ Against systemic thinking of ciam, megastructures

○ Against integration of entire urban experience in a coherent plan (against planning cities with one big master plan)

Rapid urbanization

City can no longer be though/planned as an entity

However, the city can be thought as a collection of the Grossformen

Due to the rapid urbanization was necessary to make different way of urban design to Grossformen

○ Scale of urban intervention between 'object/building' and 'City' to It's a bigger entity (not a single building, not the whole city) to Grossform

○ Grossform has a certain

Figure. Theme or Identity

Ordering principle

○ type of visual act

You don't plan the city at large but you enter a dialogue with the city

Allows the architectural intervention to become a charged presence in the city

○ Tool of urban design

Initiate a series of dialogues with city at large

Initiate a series of interior/typological explorations

basic concepts for Grossformen

“functional” Grossform to Street and Plateau

“Formal” Gross goes to Wall and towers

• New York, Rooseveltisland 1979:

○ proposed a gridded structure where different Grossformen could be developed

○ There were three types of Grossformen:

The palazzo type

the standard type

the loft type

Every type of Grossform had different variations.

○ The Grossformen together would start to define a new urban neighbourhood, because The Grossformen stand in dialogue with each other

They would create the streets

but also the internal passages

Berlin housing project 1979:

Figure 4 summary: This architectural diagram presents a matrix of building typologies categorized into three groups: Loft Type, Standard Type, and Palazzi Type. Each row begins with a photograph of a historical building archetype, followed by a grid of axonometric sketches and corresponding floor plans demonstrating variations in massing, density, and structural configuration. The diagrams illustrate how core structural elements, terraces, courtyards, and vertical volumes can be arranged to create different urban living environments.

○ Project that consists of several entities of housing on the street and on a second street

Housing very related to metropolitan scale

Housing that is more related on the green space in the middle

○ Way of creating a city with different relation and qualities

○ Idea of Unger

wanted to have quietness and a green collectivity in the city

still be close to the busyness of the city

A single Grossform that represents different qualities of the city

- The Reconstruction of the European City (1976 to 1984)

Leon Krier (from luxenburg) was critical of Modernism for its separative and functional nature

○ He is asking for a plea for the reconstruction of the European city

started to formulate a charter for the reconstruction

• Main critic points of the modern city:

○ the idea of zoning the city is bad

○ The zoning is gendering the city:

during the day the men are in the centre

the women are home

Image summary: A series of four conceptual diagrams illustrating urban planning themes. The first diagram, titled Neither City Nor Landscape, shows a mix of residential clusters, industrial buildings, and natural elements. The second diagram, titled Segregation of Urban Functions, depicts separate nodes for Housing, Administration, Culture, Industry, Commerce, and Services connected by pathways. The third diagram, labeled Maximum Distances & Movements, shows a complex network of intersecting roads and arrows indicating high time and energy consumption. The final diagram shows a circular, concentric target pattern divided between Night and Day, titled A Central Mono-functional Centres.

Image summary: A two-part hand-drawn diagram critiquing urban planning through biological and mechanical metaphors. The left side, titled Zoning of the Body, illustrates functional segregation by grouping body parts into distinct zones like eyes and ears for culture, hands for toiling, and legs for sports, labeling this the severing of senses and organs. The right side, titled Motorized Traffic, depicts the effects of functional zoning on mobility across night, rush hour, and day, showing how empty parking centers at night and empty private garages during the day result in road congestion and the wastage of human and chemical energy.

you can't walk

one centre in the middle difficult to reach from the outside (only with car)

○ The industrialization is creating anonymity and repetition

• Main points of how the city should look:

○ polycentric 10 min city to European city (pre industrial)

centres more at neighbourhood level

are more communal

have many different identities

Each neighbourhood had their own big public buildings

○ in all neighbourhoods all urban functions should be represented (no zoning)

○ He also wanted to move away from industrial production to arts and crafts

• Proposal for Luxembourg 1978:

○ Krier designed two neighbourhoods

that should be autonomy's entities with their own centre

○ You should look to the historical city to develop that city

main elements to organize the neighbourhoods were:

■ trying to make centralities --Y everything is reached in 10 min

well defined slabs with courtyards, streets and plazas

big public spaces (boulevards) with well-defined public spaces

university

European parliament

]: Image summary: An architectural site plan for a complex of buildings, featuring a network of wide paths and open spaces connecting various structures. The plan includes a legend identifying thirteen key locations labeled A through M: A is the Universite (University), B is the Parlement (Parliament), C is the Biblioteque (Library), D is the Cour de Justice (Court of Justice), E is the Conservatoire, F is the Musee des Villes (City Museum), G is the Hotel, H is a building labeled as 'H', I is the Stade (Stadium), J is the Lac de Natation (Swimming Lake), K is the Colonne aux Villes (City Column), L is the Marche (Market), and M is the Club.

Each neighbourhood had their own big public buildings

public paces should be based on historical spaces (not on abstract principles)

As an urban designer you must study historical urban spaces and integrate them in your new design:

Increasing the legibility and identity of the city

The public buildings looked like monumental historical buildings.

Counterprojects:

○ If a city made a masterplan some architects made a counterproject

City of Brussels and suggested to repair the city

Declaration de Bruxelles

Poundbury Dorchester 1988 to 91:

○ Proposal for an extension by Krier

King Charles was a big supporter of him

○ Kriers Idea for the already existing town:

■ returning to traditional architecture and urban forms

extend the city with the poly centric idea

Autonomous neighbourhoods

Image summary: A detailed aerial perspective illustration of a historical European town nestled in a valley of rolling green hills and farmland. The town is characterized by dense clusters of red-roofed buildings, narrow winding streets, and several prominent landmarks, including a tall clock tower and a large church. A long, lined avenue leads from the outskirts into the heart of the town, while the surrounding landscape consists of a patchwork of agricultural fields and forested areas extending toward a distant horizon.

- City as pattern of streets and open blocks

- He created a mixed used neighbourhood & well defined public spaces

- He also designed specific public buildings with specific architecture.

- The materially was a reminder to the historical city.

- The inside of the houses was a more modern approach.

Image summary: An architectural site plan or urban map of a city block, featuring a complex network of buildings and streets. A legend at the bottom classifies the structures by function using different colors and patterns, including workshop, public building, hotels/inn, shop/market (commercials), office above shop, office block, residential, resid. over workshop/garage, and mixed block.

○ He wrote down clearly defined rules for right arrow He wanted to create a uniform image right arrow creating a traditional town: external building walls

General items

Roofs

Building elements

Doors and windows

Gardens boundary walls and fences

○ The project was realized

○ Everything is spreading and blurring

SQUARES, BOULEVARDS, MONUMENTS

- Old Codes for a New Urbanism

- Seaside/Florida

• Clear axises and spaces coming together

Defined rules

○ How big is the garden

○ Where do I park

○ How much could the house be extended

• Setting for famous movie to The Truman Show

3. Learning from Popular Culture

Image summary: A technical architectural diagram titled URBAN CODE THE TOWN OF SEASIDE, which outlines building specifications across eight different building types (Type I through Type VIII). The chart is organized as a grid, with types listed across the top and categories of regulations listed down the left side: Yards, Porches, Out Buildings, Parking, and Building Heights. For each building type, simplified black-and-white site plan diagrams illustrate the required setbacks and positioning for these elements. A Specifications column on the right provides detailed text rules for residential and commercial construction.

- Robert Venturi and Denise Scott-Brown: Learning from Las Vegas (1968):

• They wanted to embrace the pop-culture in urban design

- They said that learning from the landscape is a way of being revolutionary for an architect

- They analysed Las Vegas and tried to understand the pop-culture in the city

• Trying to understand the 2 types of symbolism of the environment:

○ A building that is a symbol (house shaped like a duck)

○ a building that is added with a symbol (a shed that has a sign in front of it).

- Symbols are important in the interior and exterior: it shows the aspirations you have in life

- Symbolism plays an important part in the urban environment and should not be ignored by architects.

- Charles Moore: Piazza d'Italia 1978, New Orleans:

- A public space that should represent the Italian community

- Moore started to work with symbolic elements:

○ references waterpark and references for Italian architecture (columns and temples) ☐ using symbolism to engage with the Italian community

Image summary: A black and white photograph of a large, illuminated Mobilgas sign featuring a flying Pegasus. The sign is supported by two curved architectural pillars, framing a view of other gas station signs in the background, including Shell, Sunoco, and a sign that reads ON THE STRIP.

Image summary: An architectural model of a semi-circular open-air amphitheater featuring a tiered seating area that curves around a central flat plaza. The space is enclosed by a colonnade of classical pillars and a larger rectangular building in the background.

○ Urban design should consider the symbolic dimension.

SIGNS OF LIFE: SYMBOLS IN THE AMERICAN CITY

4. From Manhattanism to Interior Urbanism

- Rem Koolhaas: Delirious New York, a Manifesto for Super-Urbanism (1978):

• Manhattan = Modell for future urbanization = as the City to come

Manhattan was built from a grid

o And within that grid a variety of urban attitude can evolve

• Hypothesis of Delirious New York

○ You see this Manhattan grid and in this grid a variety of urban architecture can find its place

Within each single building the city could be interiorized

Administrative

■ Housing

■ functions like: swimming pool, boxing, etcetera

John Portman: The Emergence of Interior Urbanism:

☐ portman was an important American architect

○ He designed large hotel complexes with a communal space at the bottom (café)

Bonaventure hotel, L.A 1977

The hotel becomes interior urbanism

The plinth was five levels high and has various functions in it (only the plinth is interior urbanism, the rest is a normal hotel typology).

The plinth is open for the public: The entire urban experience is inside the plinth

Many hotels were designed according to this principle.

5. Collage City and Patchwork Urbanity

- Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter::

- The collage city is a notion which had the idea that the postmodern city is as simple as a collage

- Urban design had reached its limits:

- What was left is a collage city, where all kinds of urban models live next to each other

Collage City

Image summary: A black and white stylized map of a city's urban grid and street layout, set against a solid green background. The map displays a dense network of blocks and thoroughfares, with varying patterns of density and alignment across different sections of the city.

F.S V.L 10: Open-Ended Strategies for Imploding Cities

Late 20 century first wave of deindustrialization occurred, that led to:

- reduction of heavy industry & manufacturing

- This was often connected to the moving form Fordism to Post-Fordism

- Industries were being relocated to other parts of the world, leaving a post-industrial place

- economic and social change to specific regions and cities

- led to shrinking cities

- also posed new urban challenges

- big site became vacant located in the middle of the city with good infrastructure: harbours, ship yards, factories, and coal mines

Imploding cities easy explained:

- shrinking cities

- in the shift from Fordism to post Fordism

• former industrial regions leads to deindustrialisation

• from production to service industry

- Sites became vacant

- the sites were often located in very important/prominent spaces

- not only the industry sites but also the infrastructure which is linked to the sites become vacant

- new opportunity for urban designers

3 different “solutions”:

1. the projets urbains

- architectural design project with knotting together

- different elements, scales, programs

- typically infrastructure, housing, commerce

- not a final plan for the city, more a, open-ended proposal that should be criticized and negotiated by various stakeholders

- question of

- public space and infrastructure

• territory (neighbourhood) and the building

- involvement and collaboration of various public and private actors

- to reflect upon:

• economic

• social

- spatial question

- how urbanism is going to developed in the further

2. infrastructural urbanism

- more industrial approach to urban design

- how to deal with infrastructures which were created in the 20th century

- also in infrastructural urbanism, is about combination and regulating:

- different programs

- several modes of movement

• various urban atmospheres

3. landscape urbanism

- emerged late 20th / beginning 21st century

- landscape urbanism leads to model and tool for contemporary urbanism

- not focusing on the built but on the voids respectively the landscape

- landscape urbanism versus Urban design

- landscape is a medium uniquely capable of responding to temporal change, transformation, and adaptation

- In the contemporary urban conditions it's much smarter to look at the empty urban spaces to keep the city open-ended

• Landscape urbanism is used to develop the city and to allow future change

1. The Projets Urbains

- Les Halles: Urban Design as Projet Urbain

- 1973: Les Halles Site 40km2 in middle of Paris became vacant

- initial a market that was relocated to the periphery of Paris (better reachable for trucks)

Image summary: An urban planning map or site plan overlaid on a city street grid. The map uses color-coded blocks—primarily yellow, blue, and red—to designate different zones or land uses across a central district, with a prominent circular feature on the left and several rectangular highlighted areas.

Image summary: An architectural line drawing of a conceptual circular pavilion featuring a large, flat overhanging roof and a central interior space containing a large tree and structural columns. Small figures of people are depicted scattered around the perimeter and inside the open-air structure, providing a sense of scale.

resulted in a complex political and public debate on the role of urban

- Paris Urban Agency (apur) offered a first proposal on how to deal with the various programs and infrastructures of the site

- has certain openness with different underground infrastructures and different volumes that should be realized in site

○ infrastructure included

- 1975 to 1979 a 2 competition:

○ Competition projects offer different scenarios on the future of the city centre

- proposal initiates a dialogue between different public and private actors

■ intervention taking somewhere between the neighbourhood and the building to so not a whole city plan

- o Many well-known architects like Aldo Rossi, Ricardo Bofi, etcetera

■ Proposals varied from very modernist, or based on first project (counterproposal)

Image summary: This architectural cross-section illustration depicts the multi-level underground transit infrastructure beneath the Les Halles district in Paris. The drawing reveals a complex network of subway tracks, pedestrian tunnels, and subterranean roadways situated below the historic city surface, which features prominent landmarks like the Saint-Eustache church and the distant Sacre-Coeur basilica. The cutaway view emphasizes the integration of modern transportation systems within the dense urban fabric of the city center.

Image summary: A black and white aerial photograph of a dense European city, featuring a large central complex of industrial-style buildings with sawtooth roofs surrounded by tightly packed multi-story residential and commercial blocks.

- main element: the public space (overground, underground and connection to the surrounding streets)

■ Proposals placed in bigger model of Paris, and expert citizens were invited to look and discuss in Town Hall of Paris

- Fuelled bigger civil discussion about future of Paris

- Ricardo Bofill's attracted lot of attention with a neoclassical approach (3rd place)

1979 Project commissioned to Claude Vasconi and Georges Pancreas

• inspired by Ricardo Bofill with neoclassical axes

- also Apur with underground system

- in 2003, Les Halles was considered outdated and was readapted through new competition

• Around 2010 the decision was taken to realize the project of Berger and Anziutti

- The most important part of the whole process was the dialogue

Initial project APUR

original wholesale market

- Euralille: Weaving Infrastructures, Functions and Programs

• Euralille

○ in the northern French city of Lille

○ on a largely vacant site in between existing rail and road infrastructure

○ used to be industrial city, therefore many vacant sites after the deindustrialisation

- crossroad of infrastructure: connection to England, Paris, Brussel, Amsterdam

- Vision of Euralilie of the commissioning authorities

○ the commissioning authorities defined a 'programmatic diagram' for Euralille which consisted of four main functions:

- an urban service centre

- ☑ a transport facilities centre

- a city park

- ☑ a business centre

○ What should Euralille become

- neighbourhood for Lille

Image summary: An urban planning diagram titled EURALILLE Metropole - Les Problematiques Spatiales, dated September 12, 1998. The map uses colored overlays and arrows to illustrate spatial planning and movement patterns in Lille. Key zones include a red 'Centre d'Agglomeration', a yellow 'Centre d'Affaires', and an orange 'Centre Tertiaire'. Blue and green arrows indicate transit flows connecting various points, including the 'Parc Urbain', 'Gare de Lille', and a 'Mobile Autoboutilles' corridor.

Image summary: An urban planning map from September 12, 1968, titled EURALILLE Métropole PLAN DES CONTRAINTES. The map illustrates constraints and planning zones for the Euralille district, featuring a complex grid of streets, highlighted areas in red, yellow, and blue, and a central focus on the Gare Lille Europe railway station and surrounding transport hubs.

- crucial crossroads of main rail connections on the E continent to especially in relation to new T.G.V lines

○ They roughly mapped the empty sites. Architects and urban designers could come up with ideas (not final projects)

- First proposal in 1989 by oma (Office of Metropolitan Architecture - koolhaas)

- Rem Koolhaas suggested an open attitude for the city

○ Started sketching a proposal that could be rechanged and adapted

○ Non detailed, comic-like inputs were discussed

- based on a specific architectural approach to the infrastructural complexity of railroads, highways, and roads that firmly related the site to its wider context

- created a dialogue with the investors, the public and the politicians

- His design was based on the project urbaine:

- Working with schemes

- comic like plans

- small abstract scale models

- keeping it open and not making a precise plan

Image summary: Two architectural line drawings showing different views of a city skyline. The top drawing depicts a dense urban landscape with a prominent tall skyscraper on the left and several smaller rectangular buildings stretching toward the right. The bottom drawing shows a similar set of buildings, including a high-rise labeled HOTEL, set against a more open landscape with a low-profile structure in the foreground.

Image summary: An architectural 3D model of a city district featuring white block buildings, a green park area with tiered landscape elements, and several highlighted translucent orange and grey towers that indicate proposed developments within the urban layout.

- It was again about the dialogue, also with other architects

○ Koolhaas (oma) focused on the public spaces and on infrastructure

- The rest of urban development was designed in the dialogue with others

○ Very rudimental sections were drawn leads to cartoon like representation

- back and forth between different actors, project becoming more specific and detailed from time to time

○ Speaking about how the infrastructure could be continuous through the whole city: How are the relations in the city?

- 1989, program of 800'000m squared of urban activity was composed, which was a public-private partnership

○ New T.G.V station

○ Shopping

○ Offices

○ Parking

○ Hotels

○ Housing

○ Concert hall and congress centre

2. Infrastructural Urbanism

- Moll de La Fusta: A New Connecting between City, Water, and infrastructure

Image summary: A wide architectural line drawing showing a cityscape profile. The scene features a mix of buildings, including a prominent church with a dome and a tall tower, flanked by flat-roofed structures and interspersed with palm trees and utility poles along a dark ground line.

• Barcelona, 1970:

- The point of departure was a well-known phenomenon in many cities at the end of the twentieth century:

- an old vacant harbour area

- intensively used road infrastructure next to the historical centre

- which created a barrier between city and sea

- Manuel de Sol.-Morales developed a project based on infrastructure

○ How Infrastructure, water could be fused with the city

○ Main tool was the section between city and water  detailed

○ He tried to give different forms of public and private transportation (automobiles and people) to creating new sort of public space

: A set of four architectural site analysis diagrams focusing on different urban planning aspects: Figure Ground, Land Use, Open Space, and Circulation. The Figure Ground map shows a layout of solid black building masses against a white background with a light blue water feature. The Land Use map delineates various zones and a hierarchy of roads, including primary, secondary, and local streets. The Open Space map uses color-coding to identify land types, including red for commercial, orange for mixed use, yellow for retail, brown for residential, and green for parks and open spaces. The Circulation map highlights pedestrian pathways in green, street grids in orange, and various access points throughout the site.

Complex combination of infrastructures combined in the section

Classic boulevard

Local car circulation

Public transportation

■ A promenade

High-speed traffic

Waterfront esplanade

o Red elements created landmarks and recognizable points on the promenade to connection between promenade and esplanade

Image summary: An architectural section drawing depicting a landscape design with various elements including palm trees, a deciduous tree, lampposts, and low-profile structural walls or platforms arranged across a flat plane.

Barcelona, Land use, open space and circulation of Moll de La Fusta by Manuel de Sola-Morales, 1983

3. Landscape Urbanism

- Parc de la Villette: Points, Lines and Surfaces

Image summary: A high-angle photograph of a wide city boulevard lined with palm trees. The multi-lane road is flanked by classical European-style architecture on the left and a pedestrian plaza with more palm trees on the right. In the distance, a dense city skyline extends toward the horizon under a clear sky.

1974: Old slaughterhouses became abandoned

○ Competition organized with over 400 entries from all around the world to turn site into an “urban Park for the 21st century”

oma (Koolhaas) stood out

○ but entry that won was Bernard Tschumi

1982: Bernard Tschumis

○ Idea of evolving park leads to park that can evolve through time

○ Didn't design for final form but rather proposed set of “structural logics”, composed of 3 structural systems:

Points that were placed on a uniform grid

• Each point on this grid were placed 10 times 10 times 10 meters distanced 110 meters from each other, leading to the form of a “follies

• Follies

Points represented indoor/covered spaces of the park called “follies” to that were little pavilions placed on rather strict grid on park

Image summary: An architectural diagram featuring a collection of fragmented 3D geometric shapes and structural elements floating in a white space. The components include a red-framed cubic grid, a solid grey cube, several red curved and flat segments, and clusters of white cloud-like forms, all illustrated with light grey construction lines to indicate their spatial orientation.

Image summary: An architectural model of a city planning project showing a layout of buildings, plazas, and landscaped areas. The design features a large central rectangular building with a white roof, surrounded by various smaller structures, curved walkways, and open blue-shaded public spaces. Red markers are placed at several strategic points throughout the site plan.

- Lines:

○ very popular element in 18 and 19-century in English landscape architecture

- Ornamental function which helped the orientation

○ housed different programs like cafes

○ “Follies” would have red colour

- Also labelled as galleries

- Orienting devices which lead through park interacting with “follies”

- sometimes linear form and sometimes sinuous form  Promenade cinématique

■ Surfaces:

• Paved, water, green (forested areas, etcetera)

• Interacted with points and lines

• Gave different qualities to site

○ systems would allow for connection to the rest of city

Concept and scale model of Parc de la Villette, Bernard Tschumi, 1983

- International Bauausstellung Emscher Park: Landscape as a Basis to Shape the New Ruhr Metropolis

1990, Germany: Emscher Park was responding to industries moving away

“rustbelt” should become a green, modern and wealthy metropolitan area

post-industrial landscape at Duisburg Nord

big industrial area in the vicinity of the city

about 100 projects were realised

1990: Peter Latz Landscape Duisburg Nord

○ precisely analysing the landscape (a landscape of trash)

understanding the abstraction of the chaos

carefully mapping a man-made landscape

started to map the canal

artificial hills and the canal could become a structural elements of a new landscape

○ Idea:

Existing canals became Waterparks

Existing railway bundles and lines became Railway parks

walkways along the canals and hills

>(Image summary: Three conceptual urban planning diagrams showing the evolution of a site's development. The top diagram is a minimalist line drawing focusing on primary road networks and basic zoning. The middle diagram adds green spaces, expanded transit corridors, and a detailed legend identifying land uses such as residential, commercial, and vegetation zones. The bottom diagram is a detailed architectural rendering showing the final proposed state, featuring dense clusters of buildings, integrated parks, and a complex network of roads and walkways.)

Town promenades made connections with existing urban fabric identifying the structural elements and in the in between the landscape can develop

○ He created “chambers” in between railway parks, waterparks and town promenades where particular narratives unfolded

■ Never wanted to draw overall plan for Duisburg-Nord as it would depict actual chaos to order can't come from chaos, it can only be understood in abstraction

o placing structural logic and spatial syntax in which stuff can be developed

- Borneo-Sporenburg: A System of Micro-Voids

• a system of micro-Voids, Amsterdam 1993 to 96

Urban extension of 2 Peninsulas

o Was a small-scale and punctual approach to create dwellings with high density

○ 2 peninsulas was part of a larger project including de Amsterdam eastern dockland

West B - Borneo Sporenburg Proposal won, with their proposal

○ Not a large gesture

○ Was a small-scale and punctual approach

○ Proposal of 2500 dwelling units, 30% reserved for social housing

○ Very dense, 100 units per hectare

Majority of houses were low-rise

■ Developed 3-story low rise town housing with internal organization with big amount of open space tolandscape of small courts and yards

Diversified image due to different types of facades

■ Bigger buildings as visual markers that allowed for orientation

○ A very dense grid has to be made with almost no public spaces and narrow streets

○ But proposed to insert numerous small landscaped courts within the development trough regulation

Image summary: A black and white architectural diagram consisting of two parts. The top portion shows a large-scale abstract site plan or layout of building blocks on a dark background. The bottom portion presents a grid of 20 small 3D isometric sketches of modular building volumes, each labeled with the names of architects or firms such as Heren 5, Kother & Salman, Claus & Kaan, and OMA.

- each house had to include patios of geneours dimensions

Reinterpretations of the Dutch canal house at Borneo-Sporenburg by West 8, Amsterdam (The Netherlands), 1993 to 96

Image summary: A diagram illustrating the concept "Outside space inside" through a before-and-after comparison. On the left, a traditional house stands next to a tree and a car. An arrow points to the right, where the house's volume has been shifted, creating a void or open-air space within the building's footprint that now contains the tree and the car.

Bringing the outside space inside, thereby creating interior voids at Borneo-Sporenburg by West 8

- which comprised between 30 and 50% of the lot size

- Limmat West: A Public Spine

- Narrow, vacant industrial site next to Limmat in Kreis 5 to should developed into high dense housing

- Design competition with 14 architecture offices to Fischer Partner won

○ 320 living units with private outer space and collective outdoor spaces

○ Idea was to create public open spine traversing from east to west

Image summary: An architectural floor plan or site map showing a series of rectangular building blocks arranged in a grid-like pattern. The layout features several larger grey-shaded structural areas divided by white corridors or open spaces, with a row of circular symbols representing trees lining the top and bottom edges of the site.

Image summary: An architectural section drawing of a multi-story building complex with tiered heights, featuring a residential or commercial structure alongside a church-like building with a steeple. A red line indicates a sightline or light path originating from the far left, passing through the lower level of the building, and extending toward the top. A yellow line traces a path from a point above the building down into its lower levels.

○ Higher buildings towards the Limmat and lower buildings towards city to openness towards Limmat

Openings to Limmat that get a lot of sunlight

- Zhongshan Shipyard Park: Landscape Urbanism Constructing Cultural Change

• Former small-scale shipyard

- Confronted with vacant industrial sites that were almost in the city centre due to explosive urbanization

- Idea: Tried to change perception of industrial site with 4 key principles:

- Most important: industrial heritage is equally valuable as ancient Chinese culture

■ instead of demolishing industrial heritage it should be looked upon as important heritage of Chinese culture

○ Urban landscape should be open 24/7 for free  really public

○ “New aesthetic” of “weedy” native and low-maintenance vegetation

Image summary: An architectural rendering of a waterfront park and urban development. The site features a blend of green lawns, manicured hedges, and various modern structures, including a large red-framed building and several white pavilion-like installations. The park is situated on a peninsula surrounded by a river with several boats, and it is connected to the adjacent city area by bridges and pedestrian paths. In the background, a city skyline with high-rise buildings is visible.

■ something that is not completely controlled and planned but something that can grow and develop

○ Park as element of flood control implies part of environmental challenges

Plan:

old industrial elements structure the park and also invite for a variety of activities

Red chamber as entrance for all

■ valuing the industrial heritage which can structure a new urban design

Image summary: A black and white photograph of an elevated railway track stretching through a dense urban landscape. The tracks run centrally from the foreground toward the horizon, flanked by various multi-story brick and concrete buildings, with a city skyline of taller buildings in the far distance.

- Natural and man-made Material was re-used and recycled

- ☐ adding new elements which signal the park entrance for

- Native grass leads to allowing indigenous aspect to be part of site

- Native plants also helped when river is flooded

- The High Line: Creating an Alternative Urban Eco-System

• Manhattan was an industrial city and had a big railroad rain to transport goods

○ The Line became obsolete in the 1980's (present but not used anymore)

- 1990: Friends of the High Line (non-profit group) founded which advocate for the preservation of fright line and for its reuse for the public space

○ 2003: launched big urban design competition to transform highline in public space

○ The High Line, New York, 2004, winning proposal by James Corner

■ validated rich landscape qualities which already existed

- created new relations to the surrounding building:

- pushing real estate prices up in the direct vicinity

:A series of architectural diagrams illustrating six different landscape typologies for an urban infrastructure project. The top row shows axonometric views of the structures: PIT (0% : 100%), PLAINS (40% : 60%), BRIDGE (50% : 50%), MOUND (55% : 45%), RAMP (60% : 40%), and FLYOVER (100% : 10%), each featuring different levels of vegetation and human interaction. The bottom row provides cross-sectional profiles for these types, labeled as MOORLAND (wet), TALL MEADOW (dry), WETLAND (wet), WOODLAND THICKET (wet/average), MIXED PERENNIAL MEADOW (dry/average), and YOUNG WOODLAND (average), accompanied by lists of specific plant species for each habitat.

- created a system which catered for humans and non-humans

- allowed one to walk from wood land to meadows

- plants attracting certain animals

- developed in different sections

- using the existing infrastructure of the elevated railway

Image summary: An architectural site plan illustrating a long, linear green space or parkway extending diagonally across a city grid. The plan shows the parkway spanning several blocks, crossing through areas near 10th Ave, Washington St, W 13th St, W 14th St, and W 15th St. The linear park is composed of integrated greenery, pedestrian paths, and a blue water feature toward the northeast end.

■ Addition of public space, changes on green landscape

Plan of phase one of the High Line by James Corner/Field Operations and Diller Scofidio + Renfro

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