Theme 2: Caribbean Economy and Slavery/ The Economic Revolution and the Coming of the Africans

The Economic Revolution The Sugar Revolution Definition: A rapid change from tobacco to sugar as the basic cash crop that occurred in the mid-to-late 17 ^{th} century in the British and French West Indians islands.

The sugar revolution brought great social, economic and political changes to the islands it occurred in. It is most drastically seen in the history of Barbados where it occurred roughly in one decade (1640 to 1650).

Causes of the Sugar Revolution:

1. For a long time, tobacco from the West Indies had been preferred. However, by the 17c., tobacco from the West Indies was facing competition from tobacco from Virginia in North America, which was superior in quality and quantity.

2. There was an increasing demand for sugar in Europe to be used as a sweetener for teas and other beverages.

3. The Caribbean islands had favourable climatic conditions on which sugar could be grown.

4. There was a glut on the market so the price of tobacco fell.

Social changes:

1. The black population increased with the importation of African slaves to produce sugar.

2. The white population decreased as the whites returned to Europe or moved onto other islands because they did not want to work alongside the blacks.

3. Society changed from a free citizenry to a slave society as the Africans were enslaved on the plantations and the small number of whites ruled society. "Free" meant "white" and "slave" meant "black".

4. Absenteeism (practice of owning land in one country but living in another) became a feature of West Indian society as planters owned plantations in the West Indies but lived in Europe.

Economic changes:

1. The price of land inflated as there was an increasing demand for land.

2. The number of landholders decreased. Small land owners were put out of business and small plots of land could not accommodate the amount of sugarcane necessary. Many small holdings were grouped together into large estates, under the ownership of a rich planter.

3. The number of landholdings increased as sugar could only be grown economically on large estates.

4. Monoculture (the concentration on the cultivation of a single crop) became the backbone of the Caribbean economy as sugar became the main crop that was relied upon. This was a dangerous foundation for the Caribbean economy which would eventually lead to much distress. Political changes:

The Proprietorship System of Government was replaced by The Old Representative System of Government. The Old Representative System of Government had a Governor and an Assembly. Barbados had its assembly set up in 1639. This was the first Assembly to be established in the West Indies. The planter-class ruled the assembly and made the decisions as they held many seats.

It is said that the Dutch made the West Indies “black” as they provided the labourers from Africa and put up the capital needed by the planters to set up production.

The Proprietorship System of Government was replaced by The Old Representative System of Government. The Old Representative System of Government had a Governor and an Assembly. Barbados had its assembly set up in 1639. This was the first Assembly to be established in the West Indies. The planter-class ruled the assembly and made the decisions as they held many seats.

It is said that the Dutch made the West Indies ''black' as they provided the labourers from Africa and put up the capital needed by the planters to set up production.

Change from Logwood to Mahogany

Logwood was the first major timber export from the Caribbean and was oduced mainly in Belize. It was very valuable for its dye, which was used by wood manufacturers. Spanish ships carrying logwood were often attacked by British pirates, who stole the cargo and resold it. However, the buccaneers soon decided that cutting the logwood trees themselves was an easier way and safer way to make a profrt. These new producers caused a glut on the market. This resulted in falling prices in the 1760s and so mahogany replaced logwood as Belize's main wood export. Since mahogany wood was harder than logwood, the economy of Belize (renamed British Honduras after it was colonized by Britain) changed drastically. Logwood was a small tree which required only a few men to cut it.

Slavery started in Belize in 1724 but there were relatively few Africans until the 1770s after which the number of Africans expanded to more than three quarters of the population of about 5 000 people. Mahogany production created new jobs, for example as huntsmen, the axe men and cattle men and these jobs were done by skilled slaves. The huntsmen went into the forest to and mahogany trees, the axe men did the chopping and trimming of the trees, and the cattle men took care of the animals used to transport the logs. These enslaved men, their masters and overseers had to cover long distances to and the trees, which did not grow in clumps like the logwood but were located singly and often far apart.

This meant that sites were temporary and that enslaved men were away from their families for long period of time so logging had to be seasonal. After the logging season ended, families were reunited and celebrations took place at the community festivals where the enslaved interacted with each other. This interaction among the enslaved created creole culture.

Tobago and British Guiana are other territories which experienced the changeover from logwood to mahogany.

The Coming of the Africans

The most important change occurred as a result of the sugar revolution was a need for a large amount of skilled labour that was not available in the West Indies.

The first source of labour which Europeans experimented with was that of the Amerindians. Under the Encomienda and Repartimiento systems, many natives lost their lives. The genocide of these indigenous peoples meant that Europeans were forced to seek alternative sources of labour.

They turned to the indentureship system. Poor whites were attracted to West Indian plantations to perform manual labour. They too proved unsuccessful as these indentured servants were unaccustomed to plantation life. As a result, another source was necessary.

Why African Slavery?

The main religion practiced by Europeans during this period was Christianity. Europeans were predominately Roman Catholics. The British however were Anglicans. Europeans believed it was their God given duty to convert non-Christians. In addition, it was believed that Africans were direct descendants of Ham (one of Noah's sons) who was condemned to a life of servitude. Europeans believed Africans/blacks were made to be slaves. Bartholomew de Las Casas suggested the use of African slaves.

- ▶ Slavery already existed in Africa. Persons were made slaves for debts, punishment, crimes, marriages, etcetera, making it easy to access the large numbers required. Europeans felt that they were not introducing anything new into Africa so there was nothing wrong with what they were doing.

- to Sugar was now the major export commodity of the West Indies and demanded a large labour force.

- ▶ Slavery was seen as a “necessary evil” because for sugar cultivation and manufacture to be portable, a large, readily available, and cheap labour supply was essential.

- The Amerindian population had declined so the remaining population could not provide an adequate labour force.

- ➞ Africans were available in large numbers. ➞ Planters saw a cost advantage in the use of African slaves. An African purchased was a slave for life and the children of slaves became the properties of their masters.

- ▶ Africans were skilled agriculturists and accustomed to manual labour in a tropical climate. The Caribbean and Africa had similar tropical climates.

- ▶ Africa is closer to the Caribbean than Europe and the Trans-Atlantic voyage was assisted by the trade winds blowing east to west. ▶ As the plantation system developed planters no longer wanted to give prime sugar land as incentives to attract indentured servants and so they began to rely more heavily on African slaves, since there was no need to give them land. numbers required. Europeans felt that they were not introducing anything new into Africa so there was nothing wrong with what they were doing.

- to Sugar was now the major export commodity of the West Indies and demanded a large labour force. Slavery was seen as a 'necessary evil' because for sugar cultivation and manufacture to be profitable, a large, readily available, and cheap labour supply was essential.

- The Amerindian population had declined so the remaining population could not provide an adequate labour force.

- ▶ Africans were available in large numbers.

- to Planters saw a cost advantage in the use of African slaves. An African purchased was a slave for life and the children of slaves became the properties of their masters.

- ➞ Africans were skilled agriculturists and accustomed to manual labour in a tropical climate. The Caribbean and Africa had similar tropical climates.

- ▶ Africa is closer to the Caribbean than Europe and the Trans-Atlantic voyage was assisted by the trade winds blowing east to west.

- ▱ As the plantation system developed planters no longer wanted to give prime sugar land as incentives to attract indentured servants and so they began to rely more heavily on African slaves, since there was no need to give them land.

Areas from which slaves were taken

Slaves were taken mainly from West Africa. Slaves were taken from the forest states (Oyo, Benin, Dahomey, and Asante). They came from that section of West Africa stretching from the Senegal River in the north to the Congo River in the south. The various areas along the West African Coast have been given different names, for example, Grain Coast, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, and Slave Coast.

Methods used to acquire Slaves

- ▶ Slaves were sold at auction to the highest bidder.

- ▶ Slave scramble. In a slave scramble, Africans were divided into groups for which set prices were fixed. At a signal, the planters rushed on board to assess which groups offered the best quality for the least. money

How slaves were captured and their journey to the coast

The slaves were captured in tribal wars or raids on villages. Boys and men between the ages of sixteen and forty were sought especially. Old persons, women and children were left behind or killed in the raids. Those captured were marched to the coast.

The slaves were assembled in coffles and were often chained together. Speed was essential as a captain was waiting at the coast for the slaves. Those who did not keep up were left behind or punished.

Methods used to capture slaves

- ▶ Surprise attacks-The slave raiders often used the element of surprise. Africans were ambushed and kidnapped as they worked or travelled away from the community. Under such conditions they would have been outnumbered with little chance of escaping or calling for help. As people ran from their burning homes, many were grabbed and taken away.

The use of trickery-Sometimes slave hunters enticed people to go with them promising to take them to exciting new places and to see many wonderful things. Some Africans went willingly only to be captured and forced to make a trip away from their home. ▶ Tribal differences-The animosity which often existed between the tribes was exploited by the slave traders. Whereas Africans would 'be reluctant to sell a member of their own tribe, they usually would' be more willing to sell a member of the enemies' tribe. Enemies captured during tribal warfare were therefore sold to the Europeans.

Items used as a medium of exchange for slaves

The items used as a medium of exchange for slaves include knives, guns, alcohol, beads, cloth, and silk.

What happened to the slaves as they arrived at the coast?

When the slaves arrived at the coast, slave quarters called barracoons were ready to receive them. The initial examination of the slaves took place outside the barracoons which were as dark dungeons. Usually, the ship surgeon examines them on the beach.

They were stripped naked and placed into two groups: the sound ones and the rejects. The rejected ones had ailments. The sound ones were branded on the chest with a red-hot iron, signifying the country that they will be shipped to. The slave sales then came.

After, the slaves were placed on board ships waiting to be transported to the New World.

The Organization of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

The organization of the slave trade was placed in the hand of a company which was given the sole right by a particular nation to trade in slaves on the coast of West Africa, to erect and maintain forts necessary for the protection of the trade and transport and sell slaves in the West Indies. Individuals, that is free traders or interlopers, were excluded.

The British established the Company of Royal Adventurers trading to Africa in 1663 and replaced it in 1672 by the Royal African Company. The French established the French West Indian Company in 1673 and in 1674 it was transferred to the Senegal Company. The Dutch trade was given the name Dutch West Indian Company in 1621.

These slaves trading companies established trading forts called factors. Factors were in charge of these forts. The responsibility of these factors was to purchase slaves from the Africans and to keep them in barracoons, they were also responsible for overseeing the large complex credit system. The slave trade was one side of the triangular trade linking Europe, West Africa and the Americas. The trip from Europe was the first leg of the triangular trade. The traders involved in this leg of the trade had to ensure that they had the financial support of the national company or the sponsorship of independent private people before they set out to obtain slaves in Africa. This sponsorship included the provision of suitable ships, adequate crew, supplies of food and water, proper insurance coverage against loss at sea from pirate attacks, in addition to manufactured goods to exchange in Africa. Ships left the European ports (Bristol and Liverpool) carrying textiles, guns and other metal goods to forts exchanged for slaves who were taken to Bridgetown, Barbados and Kingston, Jamaica. On the return journey from the Caribbean to England, they carried sugar on the return journey.

The Middle Passage

The Middle Passage refers to the journey across the Atlantic Ocean from the coast of West Africa to the New World. During the period of slavery, this journey lasted from 6 weeks to 3 months. The duration depended on the weather and the exact distance to be covered. Many slaves saw the ocean for the first time when they arrived on the coast after their first capture. The sound of water and the sight of the huge vessel riding at anchor filled them with great fear and amazement. Their fear increased when they were made to board the vessel and saw Europeans for the first time. According to Equiano, 'I was now persuaded that they were going to kill me.', the different complexion and strange language spoken by the Europeans only served to confirm the belief in the minds of Africans that they would be killed.

When the ship started on its journey the slaves were packed in the hold of the ship without even sufficient room to turn. The heat in the hold of the ship of the vessel was overbearing due to the fact that the ship always travelled in the tropics.

It was made worse by the usual overcrowding. The air in the hold soon became unfit for breathing. There was the stench of filth, perspiration and vomit.

Disease spread easily under these conditions and the groans of the dying could sometimes be heard. The slaves often suffered from circulatory problems brought up from lying all day in the same position. To reduce this effect, the slaves were brought up on deck one day for exercise. While on deck the slaves were always closely guarded to prevent them from jumping overboard. As an added precaution netting were placed along the sides of the ships.

Slaves were given a few days of fresh air to refresh themselves. They were fed fresh fruits to improve their skin tone and carbohydrates and protein to increase weight and strength. Just before the sale, the slaves were oiled in an effort to give them a healthy glow.

Despite these measures however, a few slaves did jump into the ocean. Some of them may have hoped to swim back to Africa, whilst others would have looked forward to the after-life, preferring death to the misery aboard the ship. For those who jumped overboard and caught, the punishment was severe.

Arrival in the West Indies

On arrival in the New World, the slaves were physically weak and mentally depressed. If sold immediately the slave captains would only have obtained a low price for them. To ensure a good price, they sometimes allowed the slaves a few days of fresh air to refresh themselves.

They were fed fresh fruits to improve their skin tone and carbohydrates and protein to increase weight and strength. Just before the sale, the slaves were oiled in an effort to give them a healthy glow.

Effects of the slave trade on West Africa

- ▶ Reduction in the population. Historians estimate that by time the British slave trade ended, some 10 to 15 million slaves were forcibly taken from their homeland. This obviously led to an artificial decrease in the population. It was to be an annual decline as the slave trade gathered momentum each year until its abolition in the early 19th century (1807).

- to Families were separated. Parents were crudely snatched, leaving their precious children behind. In some cases, it was the reverse. Children were taken leaving grieving parents behind. to Homes were literally destroyed by fire during the raids. The raiders took the young and strong people. These represented the backbone of the economy—the labour force. Needless to say, production declined, particularly in the short run until they were able to start all over again.

- There was increased distrust among neighbours and even friends.

- Local production and crafts such as pottery and brass work decreased. Firstly, many skilled persons were taken. Secondly, with the influx of European consumer goods that were exchanged for slaves, there was an increase in the taste and demand for these goods. They were now viewed as better than the local products.

- The guns and ammunition that were trade items for slaves gave extra security to one group but provided the means for them to raid another group.

- ▶ Many African chiefs became rich from the trade. Some used the profits from the trade to expand their kingdom. One such group was Benin.

- The trade opened up new routes in the interior of West Africa.

- ▶ Employment was provided for a number of locals. Sadly, they found

- jobs as cohorts with white slave raiders. Others supplied traders with food on the journey to the coast and so on.

- ▶ Some chiefs charged taxes for the coffles to pass through their area. With this money they were able to develop their territory.

- ▶ Other chiefs concentrated on the slave trade and the profits to be had from it rather than their political duties.

The Effects of Slavery on the Caribbean

Social

- ▶ An artificial increase in the size of the population as literally hundreds of thousands of African slaves were imported annually into the New World. A change in the racial composition of the society. Before the Sugar Revolution the majority of the population was white and the minority black. By the mid-18 ^{th} century, blacks far outnumbered whites, in some cases the ratio was as much as 25:1.

- ▶ A host of new laws were introduced to regulate and define the relationship between master and slaves, for example, the Deficiency Act was passed to deal with the unequal ration. Then each Colonial Power drafted their own set of laws: Spanish: Siete Partidas, French: Code Noir and the English colonies enacted their individual Slave Codes.

- ➝ A whole new culture was introduced-the African culture. There was a small amount of mixing of the two cultures (hybridization/creolization) as well.

- ▶ A new “breed” of person was introduced. These were the mulattoes. They were the off spring of the whites and blacks.

- to Society became highly stratified. A person was now judged firstly by colour and then wealth, so that even a poor white was deemed to be of a higher status than a rich mulatto.

Economic

- The pattern of landownership changed. Before sugar and slavery, there were many farmers owning small plots of land on which they grew tobacco and other cash crops. This pattern

changed to a few landowners owning large estates on which they cultivated sugarcane to be manufactured into raw muscovado sugar for export to the Mother Country.

- The price of land increased dramatically towards the end of the 17 ^{th} century and into the 18 ^{th} century as more and more sugar estates were being established.

- ▶ Large amounts of capital were invested in the sugar industry. Most of this capital however came from the Mother Country itself. Soon the West Indian planters became indebted to (European) British bankers, investors and merchants.

- The plantation owners became very wealthy. Some of them went back to Europe to live in comfort and style, showing off their wealth. The expression 'as rich as a West Indian planter' became the accepted description of any wealthy person.

- ▶ England collected a lot of taxes and duties and shared in the profits of the Sugar Industry. Later. she would use much of this money to finance her Industrial Revolution.

- The Triangular trade provided employment in a number of areas from shipbuilding to insurance, to porters and warehouse landlords among others.

The European countries: France, Portugal, Britain, the Netherlands (Holland), and Denmark were directly involved in the slave trade. Spain did not directly participate in the slave trade but chiefly purchased slaves from the Portuguese and English traders in Africa.

Mahogany, logwood, cotton, coffee, and cocoa production was grown as an export crop during the days of slavery in the following colonies: Jamaica, Dominica, Grenada and St. Lucia. The forest or trees had to be burnt and cut and the land prepared for the coffee seedlings. This, of course, was done by the slaves as they worked their way on the steep slopes of the hillsides.

They then marked out the fields in even rows with an equal distance from each other. The land was then levelled with terraces.

Why?

(a) For convenience of working in the fields

(b) To prevent soil erosion

The field slaves planted ground provisions, for example, cassava between the young trees. This provided quick income for the estates until the coffee was matured. On most of the estates also, trees were planted to protect the plants from strong winds.

Constant weeding of the fields was done. At reaping time which was usually from the end of August to the beginning of September, the slaves would go out to the fields as early as it dawned to pick berries. This exercise continued until about midday when they had a break for lunch.

After lunch, they resumed picking until sunset or it was too dark to see, whichever occurred first. At the end of each packaging session, a Negro slave driver checked the basket of each slave.

Those whose baskets were not full were lashed.

Another set of slaves was responsible for passing the berries through a pumping/pulping mill. This process also allowed for the removal of the skin from the berries. The ''naked'' berries were then washed in a certain cistern.

Again, it was the job of the slaves to ensure that the cisterns contained enough water for the washing process. After they were washed, the slaves spread them out on a platform or glacis to dry in the drying house. Meanwhile, the old and sick slaves and children sat and cleaned the coffee. That is, they picked out the bad/spoilt berries and threw them away and stored the 'good' ones in a granary. Another set of slaves packed the good beans for export on carts which were then driven by the slaves to the port where they were stacked on the waiting ship.

The Work of the Slaves in Cotton Production

Cotton was grown in: Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. Vincent, Jamaica, and British North America-chiefly Louisiana. The slaves would clear the land and then dig holes for the cotton seeds to be planted. The seeds were planted one metre apart. The slaves continuously weeded and fertilized the soil using animal manure. Other cash crops were planted between to prevent soil erosion.

When the cotton bolls burst this was an indication that they were ready for harvesting! The slaves then picked the crop boll by boll using their bare hands. The bolls did not open all at the same time so the slaves were to keep moving up and down the rows to ensure that they got all the ripe cottons.

Each slave was given a sack to put the fluffy white bolls in. Slave drivers checked the amount in each sack and administered lashes to those slaves who did not meet the minimum required amount. The slaves then emptied their sacks and hurried back to the fields to resume picking.

The bolls were then spread out on a platform to dry. Old and sick slaves, joined by the children, picked out any trash or leaves that may have been gathered with the bolls. Another set of slaves separated the fibres in the boll. They were then packed and shipped off.

The Work of the Slaves in the Cocoa Industry Cocoa was produced chiefly in Jamaica, St. Vincent, Dominica and Grenada. The slaves would clear the land and plant the cuttings directly. It took about five (5) years for the trees to grow to maturity but the best harvest was after eight years. The second option is to plant the seedlings that are grown in a nursery. The seedlings were allowed to grow to a certain height before they were transplanted.

The slaves then planted cash crops around the cocoa plants to increase the humidity while providing shade. The pods took about five and a half months to mature so there were two harvesting seasons for this industry. Meanwhile, the slaves constantly weeded the fields.

When the pods were ready for harvesting, the first gang of slaves, armed with machetes, moved into the fields to cut the pods swiftly from the tree. They dropped these in the baskets that they had been provided with. Since they had to cover a wide area, these were usually the older or stronger slaves.

The second gang used their machetes to split the pods open to enable them to remove the pulpy or flesh fruit inside. The fruit was then put to dry and ferment. This took about five to seven days in the sun.

The pulp drained away leaving just the beans. In Grenada, slaves danced on the beans to give them a polished look. This attracted the buyer faster than dull beans. The beans were then packed for export.

The Work of the Slaves in the Forestry Industry

Logwood and mahogany were produced in British Guiana, Jamaica, Tobago, and British Honduras (Belize) but the latter was the chief supplier before Emancipation. Only the strong males were selected for work in the logwood and mahogany industries.

Logwood

Logwood is a dyewood that grows plentiful in Belize. It was used to dye woolen goods, black, grey, purple and dark red. The slaves along with a white overseer, went to the forest for a number of days or even weeks. They too were armed with a machete for cutting their way through the forest and an axe to chop down the trees.

The whites had guns to shoot games. At the end of each day, the men cooked, smoked tobacco and even drank rum together. It may sound like fun but there was a lot of hard work to be done before this and it was basically a lonely life for these male slaves. Arrangements were then made to get the lumber to the ports.

Mahogany

By 1770, there was more logwood on the market than was needed. This is known as a glut. This resulted in a dramatic fall in the price being offered on the market. In addition, the development of cheaper man-made dyes in Europe led to a decrease in the demand for logwood so the settlers shifted to mahogany.

By 1779, mahogany replaced logwood and dominated the social, economic and political life of British Honduras until the mid-20th century. Mahogany was required for shipbuilding and to a lesser extent, cabinet making.

Wood cutting was seasonal and required the slaves to spend long periods away from their family. The mahogany trees had to be found, cut and trimmed. The logs were then taken through temporary paths to the nearest riverside.

They were then formed into rafts and floated down river. There were basically three (3) groups of slaves that were involved in this strenuous exercise and the numbers ranged from a minimum of ten (10) to a maximum of fifty (50). A foreman or captain was responsible for coordinating the gangs' activities.

The Huntsman

He was very important to the process. He was regarded as a skilled slave. His job was to search for the mahogany trees. Unlike logwood which grows along river banks in groups, mahogany was scattered throughout the forests and must be searched out among the other trees and dense undergrowth.

The axe men were the ones to cut the trees down. They were usually the ones also to clear a path through which the logs were dragged. This gang was responsible for trimming the trees after they had fallen.

What were the similarities and differences in the forestry industry?

Similarities

-Only strong males were used.

-The males stayed away from families and friends for long periods.

-The tools and tasks were similar.

-The presence of white supervisors and overseers.

Differences

-Mahogany slaves spent a longer time in the fields.

-The huntsman or skilled slave was needed.

-Different organization of labour.

-Logwood slaves enjoyed certain "recreational activities" at the end of their working time.

Plantation Society: Divisions among the ethnic groups (social stratification) and

occupations of each group

Plantation Society: The rigidly stratified system of social and economic relations enforced on plantations in the Americas.

Divisions among slaves

At the top of the slave social ladder were the domestic slaves. They were then followed by the artisan or skilled slaves. The field slaves or praedial slaves were at the bottom of the slave social ladder.

The slaves used mainly skin tone and the type of work they did as factors to determine their social status. Other factors included: leadership skills, age, treatment which they enjoyed on the estate, and personal possessions.

Divisions among whites

The planters or attorneys were at the top of the social ladder of the whites. They were followed by the overseers, bookkeepers, and indentured servants.

The whites used education, family background and wealth as factors to determine their social status.

Occupations

Whites

- Planning estate work Supervising labour Administrating punishment Teaching the slaves skills

- Coloureds Nannies Cooks Domestic Slaves

- Blacks Carpenters Blacksmiths Taylors Factory workers

- Wheel rights Coopers Masons Prepare and harvest plants Reasons why free coloureds had less status than whites They were descendants of Black slaves They were less wealthy than whites and so were disadvantaged when it came to holding certain positions in society They were generally less educated than whites

- What factors were used by whites to determine slaves' social status? Their skills (carpenters, coopers, masons) Strength (muscular build, size) Age (youthfulness) Health Leadership qualities Country/place of birth Complexion Special medicinal skills Degree of loyalty which they demonstrated to their masters

- What privileges were enjoyed by whites on the estate? Better jobs Better living quarters Better food Payment Respected Had rights to bear arms More educated Right to vote They could influence political decisions as they were members of parliament Visit their homeland

Privileges enjoyed by coloured slaves (mulattoes)

- Some lived in the Great House (basement)

- Generally better fed than blacks

- Had access to books and could read

- Better dressed than blacks

Organization of a typical 18th century Sugar Plantation

Sugar estate lands were divided into:

1. Sugarcane fields

2. Pasture lands (animals)

3. Woodlands (building slave huts & fuel for boiling houses)

4. Vegetable gardens (vegetables for whites)

5. Provision grounds (where slaves got their food to sell)

6. Work yards

7. Living quarters

Buildings on the Sugar Plantations and their use

- The Mill-grinding/crushing of cane to make sugar.

- Boiling House-cane was clarified by heating with white lime, cane juice evaporated, leaving a mixture of sugar crystals and molasses.

- Curing House-for weeks, excess molasses dripped through small holes at the bottom of the hogsheads leaving muscovado sugar behind.

- Distillery (Still House)-molasses skimmed of cane juice was converted into rum.

- Trash House-crushed cane was stored here to be used as fuel.

- Work Shops-this is where skilled craftsmen made barrels, carts, wagons, etcetera

- Great House-largest house on the estate, house of the planter and his family, easy access to the road, usually stood on top of a hill where all could be seen.

- Overseers and bookkeepers' quarters-used for living by the overseers and bookkeepers and also as offices.

- Slave Huts-no real architecture, small and just enough to sleep in.

- Store House-supplies, tools, chemicals.

- Hospital-“Hot House”, where sick slaves were taken care of.

- G A O L-where slaves were punished.

Sugar Production Process

Cultivating/planting: The field slaves prepared the land for cultivation at the end of August. The slaves dug the holes, put animal manure in them, then placed cane cuttings called ratoons and lightly covered them with soil. The canes were planted just before the rainy season, as they grew, the slaves weeded the fields, moulded (refilled the holes with soil that was removed). The canes removed the dry trash from the cane stock. The canes took 14 to 18 months to mature.

Harvesting: When the canes were ripe the slaves, armed with machetes and cutlasses, cut the canes and removed the outer leaves.

The reaped canes were then tied into bundles and transported to the mill in carts or wagons within 48 hours to prevent deterioration of the sucrose content.

Manufacturing of Sugar

After the canes were unloaded, they were fed by hand into the mill, which consisted of three pairs of rotating iron rollers. Here the canes were crushed and the juice was extracted. The extracted juice was conveyed by a gutter from the mill to the boiling house where it was emptied into the copper clarifier called the syphon where it was heated with white lime. The impurities rose as scum to the surface and were skimmed off and put aside to be used in the making of rum. The head boiler ladled the purified juice into successive boilers where it was boiled.

There were about three to six boilers, each smaller and hotter than the previous one, hung over a fire. As the hot juice passed through the boilers, it was constantly stirred by the slaves until it became thick and dark brown in colour. After it boiled for some time, the head boiler tested its readiness by stretching the mixture between his thumb and forefinger. This is the crystallization process.

The sugar crystals mixed with molasses were ladled into large troughs to cool. After the sugar had cooled, it was placed on sloping platforms for about three weeks to allow the molasses to drain off. The molasses was collected and later used in the making of rum. The sugar which remained in the barrels was called muscovado. The barrels were sealed and ready for shipment.

The sealed barrels of sugar crystals were loaded onto carts and taken to the coast. They were loaded and rolled onto the canoes which took them to the waiting ships.

On arrival in Europe, the sugar was further refined at one of the chief ports. This process made the sugar crystals finer.

From the Caribbean to Britain The planter would have made prior arrangements with a merchant, agent or consignee to collect the shipment of sugar as it arrives at the port in England. One such port would be Liverpool or Bristol. He paid the shipping cost and customs duties charged on entry.

The agent made arrangements to store the shipment of hogsheads in a warehouse until the time of sale. He awaited the best price, especially since he was usually paid on a commission basis. Porters at the dock eagerly unloaded the hogshead for him from the ship to the waiting carts. He then hired and paid drymen to transport the goods to the warehouse that he had selected.

As per arrangement with the warehouse, he was charged insurance in case of fire and or theft. The latter was fairly common in those days. He paid rent to the warehouse manager.

The next day or so, he sold the sugar to the highest bidder or hires a broker to do this for him. After the goods had been sold, he paid the broker if he had hired one, and then subtracted his commission. According to the arrangement that he had with the planter; the rest was usually deposited.

Depending on the relationship that he shared with the planter, the latter might have requested certain items or consumer goods such as crockery, items of clothing, watches, etcetera These would have been sourced and shipped to the planter at the next convenient departure of ships for the Caribbean.

The Use of Labour on the Sugar Plantation

The labour force on an estate was divided into two main groups: white employees and the slaves.

1. White employees

They occupied the managerial and supervisory positions on the estates. The highest in rank among them was the overseer or manager.

The overseers had quite a lot to do. Apart from the overall supervision of the estate's activities, they had to ensure that all the material, equipment and other necessities for the production process was right there on the plantation. For example, he had to see to it that the staves and horses were ordered in time, as well as flour and saltfish for the slaves, that the mills were in working order and that there was adequate machetes and hoes for the field slaves.

Other white employees included clerks, bookkeepers and so on. Their job was to keep an accurate record of the estate's assets and equipment. They recorded the number of hogsheads made, the number of carts/wains in stock and so on. We use the word employee because they got paid.

2. The slaves

This was undisputedly the largest percentage of the labour force. They did not receive wages for their work. There were two types of slaves: African slaves and Creole slaves but for the purposes of work, the slaves were divided into three main groups:

A. Domestic slaves

These were considered to be the crème de la crème of the slave population because they worked in the Great House and received favors and rewards from its occupants. For example, 'hand me down' clothes and left-over food.

The mere fact that they worked in close proximity to the owners seemed to have been enough, for them to be considered as “privileged” by some of the other slaves. Their workload was also comparatively lighter. True, the job was more demanding, since they had to respond to the whims and fancy and every cry of the owner and his family, but at least they did not have to toil in the blazing heat under the watchful eye of a slave driver who was not afraid to use his whip.

On the other hand, their daily working conditions depended upon the very nature of the master and his family that they served. Some were spiteful, ill-tempered and grossly inhumane. Still, others were demanding and gave them quaint jobs to perform such as scratching their feet!

They did not always have a scheduled time to begin or end work. In the event of a function (party, ball, etcetera), they could begin the work of preparing the food from before dawn and still be kept up on their feet all night.

This group of slaves included: washerwomen, butlers, cooks, nursemaids, and coachmen.

B. Artisans/Skilled slaves

These were considered to be the most valuable slaves on the estate because of the importance of their job in converting the cane to the export product known as raw muscovado sugar. This group of slaves worked in the workshops and factory.

C. Field/Praedial Slaves

These represented the largest portion of the slave population. They did the most strenuous work in the fields. They had three main seasons of work: planting, maintenance and reaping or harvest time.

This large group is further divided into three gangs. A slave driver was placed in charge of each gang. He was a fellow slave who has been given a bit of authority over the gang. He was expected to use the whip to keep the gang working.

First Gang: the strong and healthy slaves, both male and females made up this group. They were responsible for the planting of the cane to include the preparation of the land for planting. At harvest time, they were the ones charged with the responsibility of quickly cutting the canes and tying them in bundles.

Second Gang: the young boys and girls about ten to twelve years old, pregnant and convalescing slaves made up this group. They did the lighter work of weeding and harrowing.

Third Gang: this gang is called the ''pickney'' gang. These children of six or seven years are supervised by the elderly as they carried out their assigned tasks of weeding the gardens, carrying sticks for fire for the slaves' meals, collecting yam peels etcetera, to feed the estate animals and any other general light work that was deemed suitable for their age, size and strength. The ''guinea birds'', as the newly arrived Africans were called, would be assigned to Creole slaves who were to train them and teach them the new language. This is part of what was known as the ''seasoning period''.

Social relations on a typical 18th Century Sugar Estate

It is fair to argue that there was limited social contact between the slaves and their masters. This was to preserve the distance between them as well as the notion of superiority of the whites and inferiority of the blacks. But there were would be some instances when they were forced to relate to each other.

In what instances and circumstances would they be forced to relate to each other?

Planters, overseers and white employees came into contact when issuing orders, in their supervisory capacity, and when carrying out punishments.

Planters and Domestic slaves:

Domestic slaves had the most day-to-day contact or relations with the whites. They had many personal tasks to perform that brought them into contact with each other, for example, serving meals, assisting with baths and so on.

Overseer and Field/ Artisan slaves

He was the one with the constant day to day relating at roll call, supervising the issue of rations be it food or clothing (osnaburg) and so on. He was expected to stand by or sit astride his horse constantly supervising the planting and reaping of the cane as well as the conversion of the juice to sugar. He was usually the person to whom the slaves reported their ''illnesses''. He had to determine if the slaves' illness warranted being sent from the fields to the ''hospital''. At times, he even had to dispense medicines!

He also had sexual relations with the female slaves. They were also the ones who prepared his meals, washed his clothes, and saw to all his other social needs.

The Masters and the Field Slaves

The whites came into contact with the field slaves chiefly at holiday time. For example, the planter sometimes sat on their verandah and watched the slave parade at Christmas time. He would laugh and call to them. Some slaves were often invited to perform acts of amusements at parties, especially the sambo or quashie characters.

Sexual Contact:

The planters conveniently thought of their slaves as property and as such felt that they had the unquestionable right to do what they wanted with them. To make matters worse, they lived in a society that "turned a blind eye" to the sexual relations with and ill treatment of the slaves.

White women vs Slave women

There was much resentment between the white women and the enslaved woman who was ''involved'' with the white man. As a result, relations between were hostile. The white woman would try to hurt or maim the enslaved.

She would often complain that tasks done by her were not done well hoping to get the planter to demote her to the fields. If that didn't work, she would give her the most demeaning and degrading jobs to perform.

Some white or coloured women in the towns who kept taverns and brothels owned one or two female slaves. The patrons and clients of these business places were sailors, military officers and so on.

African Cultural Forms in the Caribbean up to 1838 Religion

Though the planters tried to stifle the indigenous religion, much cultural retention occurred. The slaves held on to their beliefs and practices as much as and where possible. Here are some of them:

- Life after death.

- The spirit world: duppies or ghosts.

- The forces of good and evil and the constant struggle between the two.

- That the dead is still a part of the community.

- Two types of magic. Obeah-used to inflict hurt or harm and Myalism-used

to promote life, love, health, and success. Both involved the use of herbs, oils, potions, etcetera

- A lot of music and dance in their expressions of worship.

- Ancestral spirits and that one can actually make contact with them and that they are constantly watching over us.

- Chanting of songs.

- Gods of nature-rain, thunder, lightning and fertility.

- Highest respect for Mother earth.

Food

The slaves had to prepare their own meals. They did it the way they were taught back home in Africa. Also, the fact that they were allowed to grow their own provisions meant that they were able to choose what to grow example, yam, coco, dasheen, etcetera They continued their culinary skills.

Trinidadian slaves had the luxury of beans and palm oils as they would have had in Africa.

Dress

They were given either two suits of clothing per year or the equivalent yards of osnaburg. This is a type of rough khaki also called guinea blue or Dutch stripes. The women would wrap their themselves with the cloth the way they would have in Africa to form dress or skirts. And of course, they did not forget their ''tie head''.

Language

The slaves came from different areas and ethnic groups in West Africa and so spoke different languages. This forced them to create a new tongue we now know as patois. But several African words survived.

Music and Dance

They had all sorts of songs, work or digging songs as we have learnt, love songs, songs of sorrow, songs of joy and so on. In fact, it seems as if they had a song for every occasion just as they had a proverb to fit every situation. Their music had a lot of rhythm and beat. It involved the use of instruments such as: Tambourines, Banjos, Flutes, Rattles, and Xylophones. Their dance had a lot of movement and passion, involving gyration of the hip and pelvic areas and the shaking of the rear. This was seen as vulgar by many of the whites, though secretly they were aroused by it, no wonder they understood its sexual importance and described it as debauchery. Types of dance included: Dinkie, Minnie, Kumina, and Brukins.

Medicine

Traditional African Medicine is a holistic discipline involving extensive use of indigenous herbalism combined with aspects of African spirituality. The Africans fiercely resisted the medicinal practices of the Europeans and preferred to use their indigenous methods of healing. The Africans used a lot of herbs and plants to treat ailments. They also believed that not only the physical body should be free from illness but the spirit as well. African healers not only used plants and herbs to cure ailments but also charms, incantations, and the casting as spells. The individual should be both physically and spiritually sound.

Reasons it was difficult for slaves to retain their Culture

1. The opposition which they faced from the planters who instituted laws to suppress aspects of the culture, like drumming and obeah.

2. Planters discouraged the slaves from practising their dances, which some mistakenly described as devil worship.

3. Slaves were not encouraged to practise their tribal religions but, instead, were sometimes baptized into the Euro-Christian churches so as to try to destroy their link with their native religion, since they worked for most of the daylight hours.

4. During the “seasoning” period, definite attempts were made to “deculturize” the slaves as they were taught the language of the master and forbidden to use their own tribal languages.

5. The planters tried to ensure that their slaves were from different ethnic groups so that they would not unite around common customs.

6. Marriages and families were never encouraged in the British colonies.

7. In some cases, planters deliberately separated family members so as to deprive the male of any other object of his loyalty other than the planter himself.

8. Slaves were robbed of their African names that would allow them to identify with their African origin, and given European names.

9. The slaves' fear of the severe punishment that could result from disobeying anti-African cultural laws and regulations.

10. Their need for survival, which was guaranteed only by loyalty to, and cooperation with, the whites, meant that some of them were extremely cautious about continued participation in traditional cultural activities which planters frowned upon.

Ways in which slaves resisted planters and retained some aspects of their Culture

1. The slaves congregated late at nights and in secret which was against the law.

2. Some plantation owners used obeahmen as supplements to doctors. This was intended to be a cost-effective measure but provided the slaves with the opportunity to pass down herbal secrets and practices of their forefathers.

3. Others used or allow the obeahmen to continue his practice as a means of driving fear in the slaves.

4. The slaves conducted their own funeral services and so the tradition and practices were preserved with each successive funeral that they performed. Of course, the planter did not attach any significance to these ceremonies so he did not attend them. His absence gave the slaves the opportunity to do their own thing and so preserve their heritage.

5. The slaves used their own language when communicating. This includes the language of the drums and other musical instruments. As more slaves were bought and brought to the estates, the languages revived.

6. They kept their dances and songs, and the planters, at times, believed that when they danced and sang, it was a sign of their contentment, and so left them alone.

7. They held on to the rhythm of African music and revelry.

8. The slaves were given some amount of leniency at Christmas time in particular. They managed to mix and hide their religion within the established faith. For example, Pocomania is a mixture of the Roman Catholic faith and the African religion.

Reasons slaves were able to keep aspects of their Culture

1. Firstly, mortality rate was very high on the estates. This meant that the planters had to constantly buy new slaves. Though he tried to buy slaves from different areas, the reality was that most planters liked to buy slaves from a particular area of the West African coast because they were known for their hard work and industrial skills.

2. The slaves had a strong determination to continue to practice their culture.

3. They practiced some aspects like drumming and obeah secretly because any evidence of these cold have dire consequences including death for the adherents.

4. The large number of slaves helped to keep the culture alive as they were able to strengthen the will and the memory of one another, so that what some were afraid to do, others would dare to do, and what some forgot, others would remind them of.

5. Many of the slaves who came were young, and they had a strong recollection of their cultural practices and so, although they were robbed of the material aspects when they were taken from Africa, they could use what was available locally to recreate what they had lost.

6. The planters' ignorance of the significance of some aspects of the culture caused them to encourage or ignore some and outlaw others and so, even though the John Canoe dance, for example, was fraught with rebellious overtones, the planters did not understand that, and so they allowed the slaves to practice it freely.

7. They were able to pass on aspects of their culture to succeeding generations through their strong oral tradition, which was encouraged by the quasi-communal lifestyle, which they maintained.

8. Their obeahmen were responsible for the survival of the culture as they provided bold leadership and defied the odds in order to maintain their practices.

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