Salient Features of Indian Society

1. Salient Features of Indian Society

2. Society Attributes: Collection of individuals, consistent interactions, social institutions, relations, organisations.

Major Attributes:

Common/shared culture: Sense of camaraderie.

21st Century Factors: Hyper mobility, modern liberal regimes leads to multicultural, culturally pluralistic.

• Models of Indian Society:

Salad Bowl Model: Diverse cultures coexist, retain unique identities.

Melting Pot: Different cultures blend to form cohesive identity.

Patchwork fabric: Distinct cultural "patches," maintaining unique traits.

Thali model (B.B.C Asia Network): Cultures, languages, religions, traditions coexist, maintain individual identities, contribute to harmonious whole.

Ashish Nandy: "unheroic form of tolerance" (differs from Western "tolerance of enlightenment").

Case study: Kochi (no major communal conflict despite many religions).

Interdependence.

Social territory.

o Relatively self-contained system.

Specific pattern of interaction.

Notion of distinctness.

• Family (Kula): Basic unit of social organisation.

Formation: Marital Affinity, Consanguinity, Adoption.

Marriage Aim: Basic, psychological, physiological needs, sexual gratification, procreation.

. Types (Basis):

Authority: Matriarchy vs Patriarchy.

Lineage: Matrilineal vs Patrilineal.

Post-marital residence: Patrilocal, Matrilocal, Neo-local, Avunculocal.

No. of spouse: Monogamy vs Polygamy.

Family arrangement: Nuclear vs Joint.

• Impact of Westernisation and Modernity on Family:

Regressive: Nair Regulation Act 1925 abolished Matrilineal system.

Progressive: Straight monogamy to serial monogamy.

Divorce Data:

2011 Census: Urban 0.89%, rural 0.82% of married populations.

Metropolitan cities: 30 to 40% rise in past decade.

Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (Section 13 grounds): Adultery, cruelty, desertion (2+ years), incurable mental illness/disease, renunciation.

Special Marriage Act (Section 27 grounds): Adultery, desertion, cruelty, unsoundness of mind, communicable disease, leprosy, seven-year absence.

• Joint Family Features:

Patriarchal, Patrilocal, Patri-lineal.

O. Ascribed status more important than achieved status.

Coparcenership: Mitakshara school (sons claim right during father's lifetime, orthodox, biased against women). Dayabhaga school (after father's death, more right to women).

• Reasons for Fragmentation of Joint Family:

- Economic: Industrialisation (migration), Emergence of market economy, Urbanisation (costly sustenance), M.S Ghore (new attitudes: individualism, autonomy), Population pressure + land fragmentation.

- Education: New skillsets, New values (autonomy, self-assertion, privacy).

- Empowerment of women: Challenged patriarchy (legal awareness, feminism).

- Mobility: Modern transportation and communication.

- Modern liberal social laws (post 1947): Hindu Succession Act 1956, Hindu Marriage Act and Special Marriage Act (subsequent marriages outside religion/caste).

Emerging Trends in Family Culture:

- Emergence of cohabitation: Legal recognition (S. Khusboo case-legality of live-in and pre-marital sex), Maintenance rights (CrPC sec 125), D.V Act applicable.

- Emergence of Homosexual Households: Post Navtej Singh Johar case (Section 377 I.P.C decriminalised). Supreme Court rejected marriage right (Supriyo case).

- Conjugal symmetry gradually diluting patriarchy: Adultery struck down (Joseph Shine case), Emergence of dual career families (high F.L.F.P.R = 41.7%).

• Challenges to Institution of Marriage:

- Tinderisation effect (facilitating fling relations).

- Institutionalisation of sustenance function.

- Individualism overpowering desirability for race perpetuation.

- Divorce rates (30 to 40% rise).

• Impact of Pandemic on Family:

- Altered life cycle: Reverse migration (empty nests re-occupied, joint family status achieved).

- Reasons for reverse migration: Economic deprivation, Normalisation of work from home (rejuvenate social ties, save living cost).

2. Caste as a Salient Feature

- Definition: Sociological institution of stratification.

- Features: Vertical hierarchy, strict dining rules, Gotrika status trumps Namika, Endogamous exclusivity, Belief in hereditary transmission.

B.R. Ambedkar: "Caste is an Enclosed Class" (Castes in India). "The Caste System is not merely a division of labour. It is also a division of labourers" (Annihilation of Caste).

- Genesis: Varna (Rigveda, Manusmriti) -> Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyaas, Shudras.

• Varna and Caste (Jatis): Varna (broad classification), Jatis (intricate, localized hierarchy).

- Functionalities of Caste: Social cohesion, forging expertise, conserving traditional values, induced stability, direction of socialization.

- Criticisms of Caste: Exclusion/discrimination, hierarchical arrangement, low caste women exploitation, societal division/conflicts, inhibits substantive democracy, politicization of caste, inhibits modernization, honour killings, caste reservation as populistic tool.

• Colonial Impact on Caste Identity:

- Methodological surveys made caste identity permanent, lost flexibility.

- Caste based preference in land rights + education.

- Christian missionaries (realisation of caste oppression).

- British"Divide and rule".

- Depressed classes organised on lines of self-assertion by 1930s.

- Caste System Evolution (Post-Colonial): Reinforcing hereditary occupations, Purity psychosis of Brahmins, Geographic isolation, Belongingness to exclusive sub-cultures, Liberalism not mainstreamed, Lack of state reforms.

• Caste Post-Independence:

- Govt. Policy Instruments: Legal safeguards, Reservation (legislature, public jobs, education), Measures to improve ownership of capital assets.

○ Attempts towards Caste reforms:

■ Constitutional reforms: F.R, Affirmative action.

- Principles: Anti-dehumanisation, Reparation.

- Economic reforms: J.C Kumarappa committee (land reforms).

- Electoral reforms: Universal adult franchise.

- Institutional: N.C.S.C (A-338), N.H.R.C.

- Legislative reforms: S.C/S.T (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989.

■ Schemes: Dr. Ambedkar scheme for social integration (Inter-caste marriages), namaste Scheme.

- Result: Improvements in secular status of lower castes, ritualistic status did not change.

• Aftermath (Responses): Conformity, Sanskritisation (M.N Srinivas), Movements towards open defiance of caste norms and assertion of Dalit identity.

- . Dalit Identity Movements (Examples):

- Dalit Panther Movement.

- Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (D.I.C.C.I).

- Bhim Army.

- Political Parties (e.g., Bahujan Samaj Party - B.S.P).

- Dalit Identity Movements: Debate on Annihilation of Caste:

- Arguments for: Empowerment & Self-Respect (Dr. Ambedkar), Challenging Hierarchy, Political & Legal Advocacy, Educational & Cultural Awareness.

- Arguments against: Reinforcing Caste Identities, Identity Politics and Caste-based political mobilisation, Isolation Risks, Internal Divisions.

• Politicisation of Caste (Rajni Kothari):

- Caste transformed into political tool.

- Stages:

- Caste as a Social Structure (Pre-Independence).

- Caste as a Political Identity (Post-Independence): Political consciousness, contest among entrenched castes.

- Dominant castes politically active (concept by M.N. Srinivas).

- Examples: Jats (Punjab, Haryana, W. U.P), Yadavs (Bihar, U.P), Vokkaligas (Karnataka), Reddys/Kamma (A.P).

- Horizontal.

- Emergence of Regional political parties shifted from politicisation of caste to casteisation of politics.

• Mandalisation of Politics:

- Era of identity politics driven by caste mobilisation.

-: Recognised Backward classes, need for special rights.

- Meghnad Desai: "Indianising the Westminster model".

- Mandal 1.0 (1980 onwards): Mobilisation for backwardness and reservation jobs.

- Mandal 2.0 (post 93rd C.A.A): Renewed thrust to caste based mobilisation.

- "Indian form of consociationalism".

- Post 2014: Caste based mobilisation seemed to fade (focus on "National identity"), but renewed attempts to revive.

- O.B.C population: Estimated 52% by Mandal, some argue greater than 70%.

- Demand for revision of 50% ceiling (Indira Sawhney judgement), demand for caste-based census.

- Referred to as Mandal 3.0.

- Caste in present times (Fluid and Static) - Yogendra singh:

- Static Institution: Traditional Hierarchies (passed down), Endogamy (preserves boundaries), Social Norms and Prejudices (reinforce hierarchy).

- Fluid Nature (Modern Influences): Urbanization (dilutes identity, inter-caste interaction), Economic Mobility (achieved wealth alters status), Political Mobilization (lower castes gain power), Education and Awareness (challenge hierarchies), Affirmative Action (reservation policies lead to upward mobility).

Caste assuming new identities and associational forms:

- Caste-Based Business Networks (Marwaris, Patels, Chettiars).

- . D.I.C.C.I.

- Caste-Based Student Groups.

- Caste-Affiliated Social Activists.

- Online Advocacy and Identity Assertion (#DalitLivesMatter).

- Caste-Specific Matrimonial Sites (Shaadi dot com, Bharat Matrimony).

• Intercaste vs Inter-religious Marriages:

- Increasing Inter-caste Marriages (Reasons): Urbanisation (reduced social surveillance), Influence of Media and Technology (positive portrayal, online dating/matrimonial apps), Legal and constitutional protection (H.M.A, S.M.A), Social and Economic Mobility (Class over Caste, increased social interactions), Supportive Family Attitudes, Shift in Youth Perspectives, Educational Attainment and Economic Independence.

- Inter-religious Marriages Remain Uncommon (Reasons): Deep-Rooted Religious Beliefs, Cultural Disparities, Community Backlash, Concern for “Purity” and Religious Continuity, Legal and Bureaucratic Hurdles (Special Marriage Act 30-day public notification), Absence of Social Support Networks.

3. Diversity

Definition: Existence of differences and variations (culture, ethnicity, religion, language, perspectives).

• Significance:

Planet: Biodiversity (sustainability, stability).

Species: Genetic diversity (longevity, immunities).

Society: Cultural diversity (cultural exchanges, avoids monotony, inquisitiveness).

- Types of societies (on diversity basis): Mono-cultural, Uni-cultural, Multicultural, Culturally pluralistic.

Markers of Diversity in India: Spiritual diversity, Linguistic diversity, Geographic diversity.

North India: Kashmir (Sufi traditions, Pashmina shawls), Punjab (Sikh culture, Punjabi, Baisakhi).

South India: Tamil Nadu (Dravidian culture, Tamil, Bharatanatyam, temple

architecture), Kerala (Matrilineality among Nayyars, Malayalam, Kathakali, Onam).

East India: West Bengal (Bengali culture, Durga Puja, literary heritage), Odisha (Odissi dance, Jagannath Rath Yatra, temple architecture).

West India: Gujarat (Garba dance, Gujarati cuisine, Kite Festival), Rajasthan (Rajput culture, folk music, handicrafts).

• Regions as Cultural Units (Reasons):

Linguistic Continuity Across States: Bhojpuri (U.P, Bihar, Jharkhand), Telugu (A.P, Telangana).

Shared Traditions and Festivals: Durga Puja (Bengal, Assam, Odisha), Lohri/Baisakhi (Punjab, Haryana, H.P).

Ethnic and Tribal Communities Spread Across States: Gonds (M.P, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Telangana), Santhals. Northeast region cohesive unit.

Historical and Geographical Influence: Malwa (M.P, Rajasthan), Awadh (U.P, M.P), Bundelkhand (U.P, M.P).

Culinary and Artistic Traditions: Konkan region (Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka), Kathiawar Peninsula (Gujarat, Rajasthan).

4. Regionalism

- Definition: Strong sense of territorial loyalty, prioritising local region's interests/culture/identity (may supersede national interests).

• Classification:

Cultural Regionalism: Emphasises cultural distinctiveness.

Political Regionalism: Belief of discrimination, assertion of political identity, demands for greater autonomy/statehood/secession.

Based on Orientation:

Supra state Regionalism: Several states unite against another group or Union.

■ Interstate Regionalism: Different states against each other (e.g., Cauvery River dispute).

■ Intrastate Regionalism: Region within a state strives for self-identity (e.g., demand for Telangana).

Factors responsible for emergence:

- Historical and Cultural Diversity: Distinct language, traditions, customs, historical experiences, merger of 560+ princely states, different colonial experiences.

- Developmental disparity: Uneven socio-economic progress.

- G.S.D.P: Maharashtra approximately 14% to national G.D.P.

- Income: Goa per capita income greater than ₹4 lakh, Bihar less than ₹50,000.

- H.D.I: Kerala and Goa greater than 0.7% M.P.I poor, U.P and Bihar greater than 52%

- 2-3rd of F.D.I in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Delhi (MoCommerce)

- Urban-Rural Disparity and Migration: (Bihar, U.P, Odisha migrate to Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru).

- Unequal focus of Green Revolution (Punjab/Haryana vs Rajasthan).

- Physical Geography: Influences economic activities, distinct identities.

- Linguistic and Ethnic Factors: Language fuelled reorganisation of states.

- Resource Allocation and Development: Competing demands, perceived inequitable distribution.

- Historical Grievances and Identity Politics.

Possible manifestations:

Secessionism: Separation from India (N.S.C.N-I.M, Islamic fundamentalist groups in J&K, ulfa in Assam).

Separatism: Separate statehood within Union (Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Bodoland, Gorkhaland).

Demand for autonomy: Reducing central political interference (Ladakh inclusion in 6th schedule).

• Politicisation of regionalism: Exploiting regional identities for political gains.

Politics of Nativism: Excludes outsiders, promotes narrow identity, xenophobia, discrimination (Maharashtra versus Migrants).

"Son of Soil" / "Jati Bhoomi" doctrine: Rights/privileges of local inhabitants, domicile-based reservation.

Examples: Haryana 75% reservation for locals in private sector (ultravires)

Implications: Violative of Article 14, 15, 16, Impacts ease of doing business, undermines meritocracy, populistic tool.

5. Communalism

- Definition: Ideology that society is divided into religious communities whose interests differ and are opposed.

Different from religiousness/religiosity (personal spirituality, peaceful coexistence).

• Dimensions: Welfarist, Assimilationist, Retreatist, Retaliatory, Separatist, Secessionist.

Last three types create problems (agitations, riots, terrorism, insurgency).

• Evolution:

- Historically peaceful: Ashoka, Akbar (abolished Jizya, Din-I-Ilahi, Ibadat Khana).

- Result of modern politics: Post 1857 patronage of Muslims (Sir Syed Ahmad Khan), Bengal partition, Separate electorate, Communal award, Communal colour to History by British, Hindu religious/cultural elements in nationalist movement (Tilak), Shuddhi movement (Arya Samaj), Muslim League under Iinnah Two-nation theory.

• Episodic events post-independence:, Anti-Sikh riots,, Babri Masjid demolition,,, C.A.A protests.

• Transformation of Religiousness into Communalism (Case Study): Ayodhya Dispute and Babri Masjid Demolition (1992).

• Impact post 1991:

- Strengthening communalism: Economic Inequalities (Sachar Committee highlighted Muslim vulnerability as bad as S.C/S.T).

- Fake News and Virtual Segregation (echo chambers), Commercialised 24x7 News Channels, Communalisation of politics (jobless growth, youth radicalisation), Resurgence of Right-wing politics.

- Weakening communalism: Educated liberal class, market dominating Mandir/Masjid, gradual emergence of secularisation in elite urban youth, social media for fact-checking.

- Steps taken by government: N.H.R.C, Sachar Committee, Justice Ranganath Misra Commission (10% quotas for Muslims, 5% for other minorities, S.C reservation to Dalit converts), Committee on National Integration.

- Way forward: Economic Development, Reducing educational/economic backwardness of Muslims, Education, Responsible Social Media usage, Dialogue, Grassroots Initiatives, Political leadership.

6. Secularism:

- Concept: Outlook/level of interaction between state and religion.

• Models: Western, French, Indian.

- Western model (U.S.A): Age of enlightenment, Renaissance byproduct, First constitutional amendment.

- Tenets: Clear zone of exclusivity, Thick wall of separation (Church/wilderness), Absolute freedom of conscience and religion, No designated state religion.

• French model ("La Laïicite"): After French revolution, 1905 law.

- Strongly discourages religion in public sphere.

- French way of life, republicanism.

- Freedom of speech: Right to blaspheme.

- Confrontation with immigrant groups (Muslim citizens, approximately 9% of population).

- Perception of Islamophobia.

2011 law: Illegal to conceal face in public (niqab, burqa).

- France highest number of citizens joined.

- . Branded "Islamist separatism," "Islam of Enlightenment".

• Indian secularism: Variant of positive secularism.

- Notion of "sarva dharma sampanna" and "Principled distance with occasional intervention".

- Porous wall of separation.

- State can interfere in religion, but religion cannot interfere in state.

- Principal strands: Religious freedom, Celebratory neutrality, Reformatory justice.

• Secularism in Constitution: Fundamental rights (Article 25 to 28). "Secular" added to Preamble by 42nd Amendment Act.

• Comparison (Western vs Indian):

- Western: Negative connotation, absolute distance, evolved gradually, clear distinction state/religion, thick wall, single uniform code.

- Indian: Positive connotation, state acts neutrally or assists religious groups, enacted through Constitution and 42nd C.A.A, no clear distinction, selectively porous wall, personal laws for every community.

- Secularisation: Transformation where religious thinking/practice/institutions lose social significance. Part of modernisation, rational outlook.

• Evolution of Secularism in India (Judiciary):

- Doctrine of “essentiality”: Shirur Mutt case

- Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973): Secular character of Constitution cannot be altered.

- Shah Bano Case: Entitled to maintenance under CrPC.

- (Triple Talaq Act).

- Judiciopapism: Judiciary assumes powers of religious leaders.

- Rajasthan H.C criminalised Santhara/Sallekhana (fast-unto-death) as suicide.

- “Caesaropapism”: Complete subordination of religion to secular state.

7. Uniform Civil Code (U.C.C)

- Definition: Proposed legal framework to replace personal laws (marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption) with common laws for all citizens irrespective of religion.

- Current status: Different communities follow own personal laws (Hindu Marriage Act, Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, Indian Christian Marriage Act, Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act).

- Hindu code bills codified/reformed personal laws for Buddhists, Hindus, Jains, Sikhs.

- Basis: Article 44 of the Constitution.

• Emergence as crucial topic: Following Shah Bano case (1985

• Constituent Assembly Debates:

- Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: Not within scope of fundamental rights.

K.M. Munshi: Constitution allows government to make laws for secular activities related to religious practices for social reform.

• Significance of U.C.C:

- Ensures secular democracy (equality for all citizens).

- Tool for gender justice (faiths discriminate against women).

- Resolution of conflict between personal and statutory laws.

- o Impedes social cohesion.

- o Constitutional imperative (A-44).

- 21st Law commission: Secularism has meaning if it assures expression of difference.

• Challenges associated with U.C.C:

- Seen as attempt towards homogenisation.

- Might become populistic tool for division/confrontation.

- Challenge in finalising template (e.g., cross cousin marriages).

- Might go against idea of diversity.

- . Conflict with A-25.

• Views of Judiciary:

- Sarla Mudgal v. Union of India (1995) - S.C ordered government to reflect actions taken for U.C.C

- Paulo Coutinho Case: Reiterated need for U.C.C.

• Way forward:

- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: U.C.C should remain "purely voluntary" initially.

- 21st: focus on eliminating discrimination in existing laws.

- Setting marriageable age for boys/girls at 18 years.

○ Abolish polygamy by law.

- U.C.C should precede successful confidence building exercises.

- 22nd Law Commission: Fresh suggestions from stakeholders.

8. Health and Education

A. Healthcare in India

- Definition: W.H.O: physical, mental, social well-being. U.N Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 (Article 25).

• Constitutional Provisions (India): A-21, 39(e), 39(f), 42, 47. S.C (Bandhua Mukti Morcha v Union of India) interpreted Art-21 includes right to health.

• S.D.G: 3 (Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all).

• Health Infrastructure (Deficits):

- Doctor-Patient Ratio: currently Shortfall of 600,000 doctors but there has been consistent rise in numbers.

- Hospital Beds: 0.55 beds per 1000 population (W.H.O recommended: 3 beds per 1000).

- Shortfall of 2.2 million hospital beds and 2 million.

- Primary Health Centers (P.H.C's): Shortfall of over 6000 P.H.C's.

- Medical Colleges: 600+ medical colleges.

- Healthcare Expenditure: 2.2% of G.D.P in 2022 to 23.

- Mental Health Facilities: 43 government mental hospitals.

- Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (O.O.P.E): Declined from 62.6% (2014 to 15) to 47.1% (2019 to 20).

Way forward for Health Infra:

- National one Health Mission: multidisciplinary approach that unites human, animal, and environmental health sectors. eg-Avian Influenza or COVID-19

- P.M Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission (abhim): Integrated Public Health Labs (730 districts), 35,000 new critical care beds, four National Institutes of Virology.

- Pradhan Mantri Svasthya Suraksha Nidhi.

- 15th F.C: Raise public spending to 2.5% of G.D.P, Focus on "Missing middle", Indian Medical Service cadre, Local level focus, Private sector role.

- Telemedicine: Telemanas 14416, eSanjeevani, eSanjeevaniOPD

- Case Study: Rajasthan Right to Health Care Act 2022 (20 Guaranteed Rights).

- Amartya Sen: Make Healthcare an explicit F.R like Article 21A.

• Mental Health Issues:

- N.H.M Estimates: 6%-7% of population has mental disorders; (Under-estimated)

- Lancet report: 90% suffering negatively impacted by stigmatization.

- W.H.O: 50% of India's population less than 25, rising burden.

- Project 39A revealed: 60% of death row inmates have mental illness.

- Lack of Specialists (Per 100K): Psychiatrists (0.3), psychologists (0.07),

- Policy measures: Shift to "convergent model", U.S Model ('Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child').

- Schemes: Yuva Spandana Yojana (Karnataka), Tele-M.A.N.A.S (Free tele-mental health services, nimhans nodal), Ayushman Bharat integrates mental health.

• Palliative Care:

- Rising Burden: Lifestyle-related N.C.D's (1.4M cancer cases/year).

- Accessibility: 3% of 7-10M in need.

- India ranks 59 out of 81 in Quality of Death Index.

- National Programme for Palliative lacks budget.

- Kerala Model using community and Rajasthan's sikar model of mobile teams. Health Insurance Issues:

- Insurance Penetration (I.R.D.A.I): Increased from 2.7% (2001 to 02) to 4.2% (2021 to 22). Declined from 5.2% over past decade.

- I.R.D.A.I's Goal: Insure everyone by 2047.

- Initiatives: Bima Trinity, Bima Vistar, Auto-Debit, Bima Vaahaks, Digitised Registries, State-Level Insurance Committees.

- Rethink 18% G.S.T on insurance premia.

• Unethical Practices:

- C-section deliveries: 47.4% in private institutions (N.F.H.S-5). W.H.O - 10 to 15%.

- Unnecessary hysterectomies: Rising rates among young women (28 to 36 years)

- Measures: Clinical Establishment Act (implementation issues), Health audits, Medical Ethics.

Over-privatisation of healthcare:

- Indian state obligation: Article 47 Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health

- Measures to Strengthen Public Healthcare: Increased Public Health Spending (2.5% of G.D.P target), Strengthening Primary Healthcare Infrastructure (Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission), Regulation of Private Healthcare Providers, Expanding Universal Health Coverage (Ayushman Bharat-P.M.J.A.Y, ₹5 lakh/family/year coverage), Training and Deploying Healthcare Workers (A.S.H.A's, A.N.M's), Leveraging Technology (telemedicine), Strengthening Public-Private Partnerships (P.P.P's), Community Participation (P.R.I's, S.H.G's).

• Antimicrobial Resistance (A.M.R):

- Muscat Manifesto on A.M.R (2023): Increase 60% of overall antibiotic consumption to 'Access' group" (safer) by 2030.

- Govt Initiatives: National Action Plan on A.M.R (NAP-A.M.R),

- I.C.M.R A.M.R Surveillance Network (A.M.R.S.N),

- Regulation of Antibiotics, Awareness/Education eg-Red-Label Campaign

- One Health Approach: Recognizes interconnectedness of human, animal, environmental health.

- National.

- Centre for One Health (CoH) under N.C.D.C. Endorsed during India's G.20 presidency.

Health Governance:

niti Aayog's State Health Index: Annual tool, 24 health indicators, 3 domains.

Performance Rankings: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana lead; Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh at bottom.

• GoI Healthcare Schemes: Ayushman Bharat P.M.J.A.Y, National Health Mission (N.H.M), Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana (P.M.S.S.Y), National Nutrition Mission (Poshan Abhiyaan), Digital India in Healthcare, Janani Suraksha Yojana (J.S.Y), Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (R.S.B.Y), National Rural Health Mission (N.R.H.M), National Health Policy 2017.

• Women and Child Health Factsheet:

Maternal Mortality Rate (M.M.R): 103 deaths per 100,000 live births (Infant Mortality Rate (I.M.R): 28 deaths per 1,000 live births

Anemia Prevalence: 57% of women aged 15 to 49 (N.F.H.S-5 2019 to 21).

Institutional Births: 88.6% (N.F.H.S-5 2019 to 21).

Contraceptive Use: 56.5% of women use modern methods.

Unmet Need for Family Planning: 9.4% (N.F.H.S-5 2019 to 21).

Cervical Cancer Incidence: 14.7 per 100,000 women.

○ Adolescent Birth Rate: 7.9 births per 1,000 women aged 15 to 19 (N.F.H.S-5 2019 to 21).

Solutions: Safe Motherhood Programs (J.S.Y), Skilled Birth Attendance, Emergency Obstetric Care, Immunization Programs (U.I.P), Nutrition Support (I.C.D.S, Poshan Abhiyaan), Anaemia Control, Family Planning, Cancer Screening (H.P.V vaccination), Adolescent Health Programs, Strengthening Primary Healthcare, Mobile Health Units, Digital Health Solutions.

B. Education

• Evolution of Modern Education in India:

Radhakrishnan committee: replace Macaulayism.

Kothari commission: raise expenditure to 6% of G.D.P by 1985.

86th constitutional amendment act 2002: Changes in Article 45, 51A, Article 21A.

Sarva Siksha Abhiyan. Sub-programmes: Padhe Bharat Badhe Bharat, Vidyanjali.

Right to Education Act: Children aged 6 to 14, 25% seats in private schools for disadvantaged.

Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan.

○ Saakshar Bharat.

Samagra Shiksha: Subsumes S.S.A, R.M.S.A, Teacher Education.

• Major Issues in School Education:

- Low budget: Combined expenditure stagnant at 2.9% of G.D.P (6% kothari).

- School performance Index 2.0: No state reached 'Daksh' Status, Punjab/Chandigarh highest (Prachesta-2).

- Learning outcomes: Annual Status of Education Report (aser) 2023: 25% (14 to 18) struggle with Std 2 text, greater than 50% (14 to 18) with elementary division.

- Access, Equity, Quality.

• Issues in Higher Education (Factsheet):

All India Survey on Higher Education (aishe) 2021 to 2022: Female G.E.R greater than male G.E.R for 5th year.

• University Autonomy: suggested.

N.E.P and Autonomy: Categorizes Universities (Research, Teaching, Autonomous Colleges).

Institutes of National Importance (I.N.I's), Institutes of Eminence (IoE).

○ U.G.C (Institutions Deemed to be Universities) Regulations, 2023.

• University Ranking:

Not a single Indian institute in top 100 Q.S World University ranking.

Reasons for poor performance: International faculty/students, faculty-student ratio (only full-time), perception.

National Institutional Ranking Framework (N.I.R.F): 5 parameters.

2023 Additions: Agriculture & Allied Sectors, Architecture and Planning, Innovation ranking integrated.

• Research and Development (R&D):

- India's G.D.E.R.D as % of G.D.P: approximately 0.7% (Niti Aayog recommends at least 2%).

- A.N.R.F Act, 2023: A.N.R.F as an apex body to promote and guide research, innovation, and entrepreneurship in India. Budget: ₹50,000 crore for 5 years.

• Internationalisation of Education:

India aims to be "Vishwaguru".

○ U.G.C Regulations, 2023. Eligibility: Top 500 globally ranked F.H.E.I's.

• Technology in Education:

Automated Permanent Academic Account Registry (apaar): 'One Nation, One Student' I.D.

P.M eVIDYA Programme.

diksha: 'One Nation, One Digital Platform'.

swayam.

sathee: Free A.I-powered platform (Ministry of Education, I.I.T Kanpur).

• Employability of Youth:

India Skills Report 2024: 54% students employable

• Integrity in Examination:

4 major paper leak cases in 2024.

Public Examinations (Prevention of Unfair Means) Act, 2024: Offences cognizable, non-bailable, non-compoundable. Penalties: imprisonment (3 to 10 years), fines (up to €1 crore).

• New National Education Policy (N.E.P) 2020:

School Education: 2 crore out of school children to be mainstreamed. 5+3+3+4 curricular structure (ages 3 to 18) replaces 10+2. National Mission on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (by M.H.R.D). Vocational education from 6th grade. Mother tongue/local/regional language medium till Grade 5 (preferably till Grade 8). parakh (National Assessment Centre).

Higher Education: Increase G.E.R to 50% by 2035 (from 26.3% in 2018). 3.5 Crore new seats. Multiple exit options (Certificate after 1 year, Advanced Diploma 2 years, Bachelor's 3 years, Bachelor's with Research 4 years). Academic Bank of Credit. Multidisciplinary Education and Research Universities (M.E.R.U's). National Research Foundation. Higher Education Commission of India (H.E.C.I). Teacher Education: 4-year integrated B.Ed. degree by 2030.

Financing Education: Centre and States to reach 6% of G.D.P.

9. Vulnerable sections of society

A. Tribals

- Definition: Native People (Adivasis).

- Scheduled Tribes (S.T's): Defined in Article 366(25), specified under Article 342.

○ Make up 8.6% of India's population.

- Highest %: Lakshadweep (94.8%), Mizoram (94.4%). Highest absolute numbers: Madhya Pradesh.

- Essential Characteristics of S.T: Primitive traits, Distinctive culture, Shyness of contact, Geographical isolation, Backwardness.

• Development Models: Isolationist, Assimilation, Integration.

-.

• Policies and Acts:

- pesa Act (1996): Empower Gram Sabhas in Scheduled Areas (Gopal Singh Bhuria committee).

- S.C/S.T (Prevention of Atrocities) Act.

- Forest Rights [* 75 P.V.T.G's out of 705 S.T's.

- Characteristics: homogenous, small population, isolated, absence of written language, simple technology, slower change.

- Highest number in Odisha.

• Unity in Diversity among Tribals (Single Category Contexts): Constitutional/Legal Framework, Protection of Rights and Resources, Developmental Policies and Schemes (Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana, trifed), Political Representation (pesa Act), Cultural/Identity-Based Protection, Social and Economic Marginalization.

• Sex Ratio for Tribals:

- Overall population: 940 females/1000 males.

B. Disabled

- Scheduled Tribes: 990 females/1000 males.

- Reasons for favourable sex ratio: Matrifocal society, no sex determination/female foeticide, "division of labour" for women, no social bias/feudal mindset, no dowry system.

- Data: 2.21% of the population disabled.

• Types: Impairments, Disability, Handicap.

- Problems Faced: Social (Discrimination/Exclusion, Inspiration porn, Supercrip, Disabled villain tropes), Education (non-inclusive, challenges in schools, teachers, materials, reservation non-fulfilment), Employment (lower rates), Accessibility (physical buildings, transport), Inadequate data/statistics, Challenges in employment (lack of education/training, financial resources).

• Measures:

• National Policy for Persons with Disabilities (2006),

- ratified U.N Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2008).

•, Sustainable.

• The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 (R.P.w.D Act): Replaced 1995 Act.

- Types of disabilities increased from 7 to 21.

- New additions: Speech and Language Disability, Specific Learning Disability, Acid Attack Victims, Dwarfism, Muscular Dystrophy, Thalassemia, Hemophilia, Sickle Cell Disease.

- Free Education 4 person with benchmark disabilities (6 to 18 yr) (min 40% disability) Reservation in government jobs increased from 3% to 4%.

- Aligns with U.N.C.R.P.D.

• Proposed Disability Policy 2022 (Issues): Absence of political upliftment (inaccessibility of voting, barriers to party politics).

- Case study: Chhattisgarh nominates disabled in panchayats.

- Way forward: Mainstreaming systems/services, Invest in specific programs, Capacity building of health care providers, Generating representative community-based data, Political parties outreach.

- Schemes: Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme (D.D.R.S), A.D.I.P, National Fellowship for Persons with Disabilities, National Action Plan for Skill Development of Persons with Disabilities, Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan (Accessible India Campaign), Scholarships, Incentive Scheme for Providing Employment in Private Sector, N.I.E.P.M.D, National Trust, Unique Disability I.D (U.D.I.D) Project, I.E.D.S.S, S.I.P.D.A.

C. Children and Related Issues

• Definition of Child (Conflicting):

- Child Labour Act, 1986: Child less than 14 years, Adolescent 14 to 18 years.

- Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006: Male 21 years, Female 18 years.

- Juvenile Justice Act, 2015: Heinous offence greater than 16 = adult, Other crimes till 18 = child.

- U.N Convention on the Rights of the Child (C.R.C), 1989: Child less than 18 years.

- Vulnerability of Children: Age-related dependency, physical/mental immaturity, legal inconsistencies, low bargaining power, parent's status.

- C.R.C Rights: Survival, Development, Protection, Participation.

• Child Labour (C.L):

- . I.L.O definition.

- Extent: Census 2011: 3.9% of total child population working.

- unicef: India has highest number of labourers less than 14 years.

- Concentrated in 5 states: Bihar, U.P, Rajasthan, M.P, Maharashtra.

- Dimensions: Economic (demand/supply side, informal economy), Socio-Cultural + Gendered (girls in domestic labour), Functionalism (vocation vs education, Gandhi's

- Wardha scheme), Intersectional (high poverty among SCs/S.T's in Bihar).

Legal Provisions Against C.L:

- Constitutional: Articles 23, 24, 39(e), 45.

- Statutory: Factories Act, 1948; Mines Act, 1952.

- Ghurupadswamy Committee, 1978.

- Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, Complete prohibition less than 14 years, prohibits 14 to 18 in non-hazardous occupations.

- Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act. 2009.

- Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection) Act, 2015.

• International Commitments: I.L.O Conventions No. 138, No. 182.

• Flaws of Child Labour Amendment Act, 2016: Reduced list of hazardous occupations (from 83 to 3), Permissible C.L in family enterprises (Section 3, Clause 5), International Standards Violation.

• Schemes: National Child Labour Project (N.C.L.P) Scheme, pencil Portal.

- Case studies (N.G.O's): Butterflies (Delhi), Child Rights and You (C.R.Y), Bachpan Bachao Disorganised families

- Andolan (B.B.A) (Kailash Satyarthi).

Juvenile Delinquency:

- Definition: Participation of minors in illegal crimes.

Digital Exposure

Urban Loneliness and mental health issues

Relative Deprivation is rising

Social Capital down

- Crime in India report: greater than 60% increase in 15 years, 99.3% boys. Education Value Deficit Easy access to drugs weapons cars

- Theories: Strain Theory, Subculture Theory, Differential Opportunity Theory.

- Fostering Factors: Poverty, Family Issues, Neighborhood, Mental Health, Virtual World, Substance Abuse, Bad Peer Group.

International Instruments (Juvenile Justice): Beijing Rules, Riyadh Guidelines, Havana Conventions, Vienna Guidelines.

The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015: Replaced 2000 A

Allows 16 to 18 year olds in heinous offenses to be tried as adults.

Child Sexual Abuse:

- "Unfinished Agent" report: 4.2 times rise in 25 years.

- unicef: 1 in 10 girls forced to engage in sex, 90% perpetrators known.

Government Provisions: I.P.C Sections (376, 354, 377).

Identity Crisis Time poverty of parents

pocso Act, 2012: Criminalizes, Special Courts, Gender-neutral, Mandates reporting.

pocso Amendment Act, 2019: Increases min. punishment (includes death penalty), tightens child pornography provisions.

Key Provisions of pocso Rules, 2020: Staff Verification, Child Protection Policy, Sensitization/Training, Reporting Child Pornography.

Other Initiatives: Child Protection Services (C.P.S), Investigation Tracking System for Sexual Offences, National Database on Sexual Offenders, N.C.P.C.R, Cyber-Crime Portal, D.N.A Analysis Units, Forensic Science Laboratories, Sexual Assault Evidence Collection Kit.

• Case studies: Arpan (Mumbai), Tulir (Chennai), Childline India Foundation (1098 Helpline).

D. Gender Issues (Women and Related Issues) - S.D.G.5, Art39d and Art42.

• Sex vs Gender: Sex (biological), Gender (sociological construct).

Gender roles: Socially constructed (W.H.O definition).

Economic Sphere:

- Velvet ghetto: Low-paying, female-dominated jobs (beauty, nursing, teaching). Perpetuates glass ceiling.

- Glass escalator: Men promoted faster in female-dominated sectors. eg-Chefs

- Oxfam: report 2022: less than 6% C.E.O's in S&P 500.

- I.L.O Global Wage Report: India gender wage gap at 34% one of the highest.

- Female Labour Force Participation Rate (F.L.F.P.R):

- Periodic Labour Force Survey 2023 to 24: Increased to 41.7%.

issues despite L.F.P.R: Household work, social stigma, adverse impact of government policies, violence in public places, gender wage gain.

- U Shaped Hypothesis: Female L.F.P.R correlation with economic development.

- Covid-19 Impact: Rural jobs shifted to men, increased violence (N.C.W registered 2.5 times increase in domestic violence complaints).

- Feminisation of poverty (U.N.D.P): Women experience poverty at higher rates. Unpaid work worth 3.1% of G.D.P. Women do 3x as much unpaid care work.

- Feminisation of Agriculture: 75.7% of women in rural India engaged in agriculture (P.L.F.S). 24% increase in female agricultural labourers (2001 to 2011 Census).

- As mentioned by Pam Rajput Committee, a moral overhauling of society is required to transition from women's development to women-led development.

• Social Implications:

- Patriarchy: Men hold primary power. Sylvia Walby's six patriarchal structures.

- Shadow pandemic: Growing rates of violence against women/girls amid COVID-19.

- N.F.H.S-4: 71% of women with drunken husbands faced spousal violence.

- Second shift: Women's double burden of work.

- Mommy Track

- Objectification of women: Martha Nussbaum's seven features.

- Burden of symbolism.

• Political Implications:

India: 14% women in loksabha and 19% in Rajya Sabha.

Rwanda: 52% women in cabinet, 61% women in parliament.

India: B.J.D Odisha reserved 33% seats for women.

Economic Survey 2017 to 18: 13.72 lakh elected women representatives in Panchayati Raj (~44.2% of total).

Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023: One-third reservation for women in Lok Sabha, State Assemblies, Delhi Assembly. Sunset clause: 15 years.

Road to gender equality: 257 years to close economic opportunity gap.

Women in Judiciary: 11.5% in High Courts, 4 out of 33 in S.C. Lower court situation still better with 30%.

Global Initiatives: Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (B.P.f.A) Istanbul how multiple social identities interact to produce overlapping forms or privilege or disadvantage Convention (India not a party). 1. Structural Violence 2. Digital Intersectionality 3. Institutional Intersectionality 4. Overlapping vulnerabilities 5. Spatial Exclusion

• Intersectional feminism: Coined by Kimberlé.

N.C.R.B: Crimes against Dalits, particularly Dalit women, risen by 25% over decade.

• Laws for rehabilitation: Interim Relief for sexual assault victims.

• Maternity Benefit Act: Extended paid leave from 12 to 26 weeks.

• Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (P.W.D.V.A).

10. Urbanisation

- Definition: Increase in proportion of people in towns/cities. U.N: movement from rural to urban

with population growth equating to urban migration.

• Urbanisation in India:

urban loneliness, urban time poverty, reduced social

2011 Census: approximately 377 million urban residents (~31.16% of total population

Urban residents expected to nearly double.

Oxford Economics' Global cities report: 17 of 20 fastest-growing cities (2019 to 2035) from India.

Indian cities likely to contribute 70% of India's G.D.P by 2030.

1. unequal development - Gated communities eg-Gurugram skyscrapers adjoining urban villages.

2. Housing Affordability Crisis - Wealth concentration eg-No inheritance tax

3. Infrastructure Divide - Schools, Hospitals, roads better in elite areas

4. Caste Based Segregation - eg - Dharavi - mostly inhabited by "leather Workers (Chamahars)"

5. Way Ahead - Transit Oriented Dev, 15-min city, Access to Urban commons be inclusive

- Causes: Migration (post-partition), expansion in government services, Eleventh five year plan, employment opportunities, infrastructure, private sector growth post 1990.

- Social Effects: Family and kinship disruption, Caste transforms into class (Andre Beteille). Increased status of women.

• Problems of Urbanisation:

Unplanned growth, inadequate basic services.

High income inequality, poor quality of life.

Economist Intelligence Unit's Global Liveability Index 2019: New Delhi 118th, Mumbai 119th (out of 140 cities).

Growing inequality: U.N-Habitat: approximately 45% of urban population in developing countries live in slum households.

Overcrowding, Transport (traffic jams), Unemployment (15 to 25% of labour force), Disaster proneness, Housing (U.N.C.H.S "Housing Poverty"), Environmental concerns (land insecurity, water quality, air pollution, noise, waste disposal, anthropogenic C-O-two).

Disaster risk: approximately 3 in 5 cities globally ( greater than 500,000 inhabitants) at high risk (U.N D.E.S.A).

Solid waste management, Urban Crimes, Planning (multiplicity of local bodies, rigid master plans).

- Reasons for problems: Overlapping institutions, state governments ineffective at local level, mega-cities lack control, U.L.B's lack responsibility/autonomy/capacity, citizens limited accountability, fractured planning.

• Crisis in City Governance:

R.B.I survey (of 221 municipal corporations, 2020 to 21): greater than 70% decline in revenues, expenditure rose by approximately 71.2%.

O.E.C.D data: India has lowest property tax collection rate globally.

Case study: Kerala's people's plan model (40% of State's plan budget for local bodies).

- Way forward: R.B.I recommendations (three F's: functions, finances, functionaries). M.o.H.U.A committee recommendation (10% income-tax to cities). Avoid "smart cities" piecemeal approach. Elected city leadership.

Permanent cadre for functionaries. Rurban Mission. Smart village development. One Nation One Ration Card. Human Development Report: migration integral to human development.

Migration-centric policies. Kerala government schemes for migrants (Aawaz health insurance, Apna Ghar project, Portable Rights).

11. Population and Related Issues

• Demography: Systematic study of population. Formal demography (quantitative), social demography.

Theories of Population Growth:

- Malthusian Theory: Human populations grow faster than subsistence.

- Theory of Demographic Transition: Links population growth to economic development.

- Phase 1: Low growth (high birth/death rates).

- Phase 2: Very high growth (population explosion) (death rates fall quickly).

- Phase 3: Low growth (low birth/death rates).

• Indicators of population growth:

- Fertility:

- Birth rate: S.R.S 2020: 19.5 (national), 36.9 (1971). Bihar (26.2) highest,

- Andaman & Nicobar (11.2) lowest.

- Total Fertility Rate (T.F.R): N.F.H.S 5: Declined from 2.2 to 2.0 (national). Only 6 states (Bihar, Meghalaya, Manipur, Jharkhand, U.P) have T.F.R greater than 2. Sikkim lowest (1.1), Bihar highest (3).

- Mortality:

- Infant Mortality Rate (I.M.R): R.G.I 2021: 27.

- Maternal Mortality Rate (M.M.R): R.G.I 2018 to 20: 97.

- Death rate: S.R.S 6.0 (national), 14.9 (1971).

- N.H.M Interventions to reduce I.M.R/M.M.R: J.S.Y, Operationalization of health centers. Name Based Web enabled Tracking, Mother and Child Protection Card, Antenatal/intranatal/postnatal care, A.S.H.A's, Village Health and Nutrition Days, A.R.S.H, Health/nutrition education, J.S.S.K, U.I.P, Newborn care (N.B.C.C, S.N.C.U's, N.B.S.U's), H.B.N.C, Capacity building, Malnutrition management (N.R.C's), I.N.A.P, Newer interventions, Intensified Diarrhoea Control Fortnight, I.A.P.P.D.

• Population Growth in India:

- Economic Survey 2018 to 19: Growth rate slowing. 1971 to 81: 2.5% annually, 2011 to 16: 1.6%.

- N.F.H.S-5: T.F.R at 2.0 (below replacement rate).

• Population Momentum effect: Continued population growth despite fertility decline due to existing age structure.

- Examples: India (T.F.R 2.0, population still grows), China (T.F.R 1.09, peaked 2022).

• Demographic Dividend: Economic growth potential from high working-age proportion (15 to 64 years).

- Key Features: Median age 28.7 years. greater than 60% of population working-age.

- Workforce projected to grow until 2060s. Urbanization and Aspirations.

• High population -> poverty?: Theory challenged by South Korea/Taiwan (rapid growth, high per capita income 1960 to 80: 6.2%, 7%). I.C.P.D (1994) rejected intrinsic link.

- Demographic Winter: Decline in population growth due to low fertility, aging populations, shrinking workforce.

- Key Features: Declining Fertility Rates (below 2.1), Examples: Japan (1.3), Italy (1.2), South Korea (0.81 in 2023). Aging Population, Shrinking Workforce, Economic Stagnation.

12. Poverty and Hunger

- Poverty Definitions: U.N, World Bank. Mohammad Yunus: Bonsai Poverty.

- Poverty Measurement: Poverty line, Poverty Line Basket (P.L.B), Poverty Ratio (H.C.R).

- World Bank re-defined extreme poverty: Living on <$3.00/day (2021 P.P.P). Old $2.15 line: 2.4% of Indians poor in 2022. New $3 line: 5.3% of Indians poor in 2022 (down from 16.2% in 2011 to 12).

- Global Poverty Prevalence: World Bank 2024: 692 million people lived below poverty line (8.5% population). 7% of global population in low inequality countries. Climate change risk: approximately 1 in 5 people experience severe weather shock. COVID-19 could double acute hunger (additional 130 million people).

• S.D.G on Poverty: Goal 1 (Eradicate extreme poverty).

- Poverty Estimation in India: niti Aayog's task force, N.S.O data. Based on consumption expenditure.

- Committees:,,,.

- ☐ Rangarajan committee: New poverty line ₹32 (rural), ₹47 (urban).

• Multidimensional Poverty Index (M.P.I): Launched by U.N.D.P and O.P.H.I in 2010.3 dimensions, 10 indicators: Education, Health, Standard of living.

• Global M.P.I report, 2024: 1.1 billion people (~18%) in acute multidimensional poverty.

- India: largest number of people in extreme poverty (234 million).

- India's National M.P.I (N.M.P.I): Introduced 2021 by niti Aayog. Added Maternal Health and Bank Account indicators.

- Significant reduction: From 29.17% (2013 to 14) to 11.28% (2022 to 23).

- approximately 24.82 crore people escaped poverty (2013 to 14 to 2022 to 23).

- ☐ Uttar Pradesh largest decline (5.94 crore people).

- India likely to achieve S.D.G Target 1.2 before 2030.

Poverty Alleviation Programs: Poshan Abhiyan, Anemia Mukt Bharat, Targeted Public Distribution System (covers 81.35 crore beneficiaries), P.M Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana, Ujjwala Yojana, Saubhagya, Swachh Bharat Mission, Jal Jeevan Mission, P.M Jan Dhan Yojana, P.M Awas Yojana.

- P.M.A.Y-G: Target 2.95 crore houses by 2023 to 24, extended for 2 crore more. As of November 2024, 3.21 crore sanctioned, 2.67 crore completed.

- National Old Age Pension Scheme (N.O.A.P.S).

- Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (mgnrega) 2005 (100 days assured employment, 1/3 for women).

- National Rural Livelihood Mission.

- National Urban Livelihood Mission (N.U.L.M).

- Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana.

- Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (1.5 crore bank accounts).

Hunger Definitions: F.A.O, Amartya Sen (3.A's: Availability, Affordability, Accessibility).

• S.D.G on Hunger: Goal 2.

Prevalence of Hunger:

- World Food Programme: 135 million suffer acute hunger.

- Global Hunger Index (G.H.I) 2024: India ranks 105th out of 127 countries, in "serious" category.

- Four Indicators: Undernourishment, Child Stunting, Child Wasting, Child Mortality.

- Key Findings (India): G.H.I Score 27.3. Undernourished children 13.7%. Stunted children 35.5%. Wasted children 18.7% (highest globally). Child mortality rate 2.9.

- India's Response: Criticized "faulty methodology," "small sample size".

Causes of Hunger: Food wastage (45 million tonnes of grains wasted in F.C.I godowns annually). Inefficient transportation/distribution, Pilferage/diversion, Lack of qualitative/diversified food basket, Affordability (high food inflation), Accessibility (inclusion/exclusion errors), Inefficient P.D.S ( greater than 90 million eligible excluded from N.F.S.A). Nutritional Challenges (S.O.F.I 2024: 55.6% of Indians cannot afford healthy diet). Urbanization (51% urban slum households in Delhi food insecure). Gender-Based Nutritional Gap. Faulty Policies, Poor funding, Lack of integration, Multiplicity of schemes.

- Govt. initiatives: Eat Right India movement (fssai), poshan Abhiyan, I.C.D.S, National Food Security Act 2013, Mid Day Meal Scheme.

Way Forward: Biofortification.

• Case studies:

- Anna Canteen (A.P),

- Ahar Yojana (Odisha)

• Focus on 112 Aspirational districts.

• Add Vitamins/minerals to P.D.S staples.

• Higher convergence among schemes.

• Improve storage facilities.

• Expand I.C.D.S safety net.

- Promote Climate-Resilient Agriculture. Comprehensive Nutrition Programs. Strengthen Data Collection.

- White revolution 2.0

13. Globalisation and its impact on Indian society

- Definition: Integration in global economy, increased interconnectedness, interdependence, fusion. Speeded up over last half-century.

• Related concepts:

- Grobalisation: Imperialistic ambitions of nations/corporations.

- Glocalisation: Fusion of global and local.

- Web 1.0: Monologue, static.

- Web 2.0: Dialogue, user-generated content.

• Impacts on Indian society (overall):

Homogenisation: Fusion of cultures. Cultural Homogenization, Language Endangerment (e.g., Tulu, Kodava, Bodo losing speakers), Standardization of Values, Economic Disparities.

Promotion of Diversity: Yoga and Ayurveda gain global prominence.

Revitalization of Traditions: "Make in India," "One District, One Product".

Strengthening Regional Identities: South Indian cinema global acclaim.

Westoxification: Mindless imitation of the West.

Walmartisation: Impact on small shops, consumerism.

Mcdonaldisation: Rationalisation (Efficiency, Calculability, Predictability, Control).

• Globalization and New Technology: Innovation, Resource Optimization, Global

Collaboration, Economic Growth/Employment, Sustainable Development.

• Challenges in Indian Context: Digital Divide (rural areas 65% population lag), +33% -57% (Interent Access) - Dependence on Imports, Environmental Concerns (e-waste).

• Impact on Women:

- Positive: Economic Empowerment (I.T, textiles), Educational Advancements, Social Empowerment, Healthcare Improvements, Political Participation.

- Negative: Economic Exploitation (low-wage, poor conditions), Cultural Erosion (Western consumerism, objectification), Widening Inequalities (digital divide), Trafficking/Exploitation. Double Burden of Labor.

• Impact on Elders:

- Positive: Improved Healthcare Access, Economic Opportunities, Enhanced

- Connectivity, Cultural Exchange, Support Systems.

- Negative: Social Isolation (urban migration of youth, breakdown of joint families), Cultural Alienation, Economic Insecurity, Health/Technology Divide, Exploitation/Neglect.

• Impact on Youth:

- Positive: Educational Opportunities, Economic Empowerment, Cultural Exchange, Technological Advancements, Political Awareness/Activism.

- Negative: Cultural Homogenization, Identity Crisis, Economic Inequalities, Mental Health Challenges, Unhealthy Lifestyles.

• De-globalization: Reduction in interconnectedness.

- Drivers: Economic Protectionism, Political Nationalism (Brexit, "America First"), Geopolitical Tensions, Technological Disconnect, Environmental/Health Concerns.

- Signs: Trade Wars/Tariffs, Brexit, Supply Chain Disruptions (COVID-19), Populist Politics.

A.I and Mind

1. Cognitive Offloading - Outsourcing thinking to A.I eg-Relying on L.L.M for homework

2. Confirmity Bias

3. Creativity Reducing

4. Fear of Autonomous decision making

You have reached the end of the document.