Global History of Urban Design I+II

Peer Hess

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Quizlets

Semester I:

quizlet dot com U.R.L

Semester 2:

quizlet dot com U.R.L

Colloquium:

- One language only throughout the exam: German, English or French

- Short concise sentences, no keywords

- Only comparisons between projects of part1 or between projects of part2

- Only Information in the lectures will be tested, not from the book

- Dates before 1800: Century, dates after 1800 decade

- 2 parts: One is knowledge: 30%, one is interpretation: 70%.

- Seems more like you have to identify the floorpans and not the images

- Knowledge Question could be:

- At the end of this document, you see drawings figure 1 and figure 2. Please study these carefully and answer the following two questions: Specify the name of the city/location where these projects were designed, specify the date (century) for projects before 1800) or decade (for projects after 1800) in which each of these two projects were designed and provide the name the author(s) of the second project (fig. 2).

Figure 1 summary: A 1972 architectural site plan of Uruk. A bold perimeter line delineates the extent of the city at the end of Late Uruk. The map features a grid overlay and identifies several key structures, including the Eanna district and the Anu district.

- Multiple Choice:

- General Principles (Thick two correct ones): () A. a proto-urban settlement as result of domestication of plants B. located at an important topographical position: a valley () C. related to the development of agricultural tools of obsidian () D. constructed of the materials of natural stone and timber

- Specific Principles (Thick two correct ones) () A. a single dwelling typology is repeated across the settlement() B. religious/ritual spaces are absent from this settlement() C. the three-partite division of house entails next to a) a part fo ooking and b) a part for living and sleeping, a third part c) for leisure activities() D. there are no streets, all circulation happens over roofs ()

- What is a 'Parkway'? Please explain this concept through one example that was discussed in the course, and include a schematic drawing of your chosen example. Make sure to name the time period (decade) location (city) of your chosen project.

- Principles (Thick two correct ones): () A. new urban design figure invented by Leberecht Migge () B. a road for cars through a park, for instance in Central Park between East and West Manhattan () C. an urban design figure that allows you to travel in urbanized areas, while having the impression to travel in a park () D. an urban design figure that allows to connect several parks into one green system

- Example (Provide one example that was discussed in the course)

- Sketch (Make a diagrammatic sketch of a Parkway)

- Interpretation/ Analysis:

- As industrialisation and urbanisation progressed, green spaces played an increasingly important role in many urban design projects. This was certainly the case for the schematic urban design you see in figures 3 and 4 below. Six questions: al Give the name, designer and time period (decade) of this urban design scheme, b What is located in the gridded area of Figure 3(be specific)? c) Draw and name the 'railway in Figure 3, d) Draw 2 different main green spaces in Figure 4 and give their specific names, e) Draw and name the industry in Figure 4, ) Draw and name the "Crystal Palace in Figure 4, and explain what role it played

- Various forms of infrastructure have often played a key role in the design of cities. This was certainly the case in the two examples you see in Figures 5 and 6 at the end of this document. In a comparative analysis of the two examples, please explain how infrastructure has influenced urban design. Write down the name of the project/city, the date (century (before 1800) or decade (after 1800)) and the designers (if applicable) and discuss the role that infrastructure played. Remember to compare the projects/cities, discussing similarities and differences

Figure 6 summary: A collection of photographs, line drawings, diagrams, and maps illustrating residential urban design. It includes a photograph of a row of multi-story brick townhouses bordering a tree-lined street, a line drawing showing the symmetrical elevation of a building with a triangular pediment, a floor plan showing room layouts and stairs, and a detailed elevation of a four-story facade with arched windows. Additionally, four perspective sketches show different versions of a central square surrounded by uniform building blocks, and a historical map provides a top-down street layout of the urban plan.

Figure 5 summary: A diagram illustrating the correct principle of a city's growth, characterized by open country near at hand and rapid communication between off-shoots. The visual depicts three circular urban centers—Garden City, Central City, and Concord—surrounded by open country. Central City has a population of 58,000, while Garden City and Concord each have populations of 32,000. These cities are connected by an inter-municipal railway and high roads.

1.01 — The History and Theory of the City as Project

1. What Is the City?

- Latin root: civilis >> relating to citizens and civic life; cities are fundamentally about collective organisation

- Rousseau: "Houses make a town, but citizens make a city"

- Multiple disciplinary definitions:

- Lefebvre (sociology): city as site of social reproduction and everyday life

- Pirenne (economics): city defined by market exchange and trade

- Venturi / Koolhaas (architecture/urbanism): city as complex, layered built environment

- Planetary urbanisation >> majority of humanity now lives in cities; the urban condition is the dominant human condition globally

Image summary: a side-by-side composition featuring a painting of a classical interior and a printed title page. The left image is a painting of a large, airy hall with marble walls and high ceilings, dominated by a massive wall map. Several figures in classical robes are present, with wooden desks and benches scattered across the floor. The right image is the title page of a book titled M. VITRVVII POLLIONIS DE ARCHITECTVRA LIBRI DECEM, featuring Latin text, a central decorative emblem of a figure, and the publication location of Venetiis with the date MDLXVII.

2. The City as a Man-Made Material and Spatial Project

- Cities are not self-organising >> they result from willful, intentional human acts

- Forma Urbis Romae (3rd c. A.D) >> monumental stone map of Rome engraved at the scale of every building; the Romans already conceived of the city as a totalisable material artefact - Public and Interior spaces

- Vitruvius (1st c. B.C, De Architectura) >> architecture consists of two inseparable dimensions:

- Fabrica >> the act of making, craft, material production

- Ratiocinatio >> theory, reasoning, intellectual reflection

- Leon Battista Alberti (15th c.) >> "The city is like a large house, and the house is like a small city": urban design mediates between existing conditions and future projections

3. Urban Design as Engagement

3.1 Ground / Topography

- Urban design is always a reflexive, engaged response to pre-existing conditions and resources

- Boston >> city grew from a hilltop (Beacon Hill); Cairo >> structured along the Nile flood plain

- Istanbul >> Fortress to the sea, important religious monuments placed on the higher points of the city

- Montemassi >> fortress on hill for better defense

- Las Vegas >> linear due to flat topography in the desert

- Amsterdam >> built on swampy ground; canals dug, houses on wooden piles driven into peat; the canal network is the ground condition

- Berlin >> sandy, uniform soil with limited load-bearing capacity; remarkably uniform approximately 26m building height across large areas

- Manhattan (N.Y.C) >> bedrock close to surface in Midtown and Lower Manhattan; skyscrapers possible; absence of bedrock in Greenwich Village explains absence of high

- Lisbon >greater than 1755 earthquake destroyed the Baixa; Pombaline grid reconstruction, seismically rational design

- Tokyo >> frequent earthquakes; urban design logic of air joints (visible gaps between buildings) to prevent chain collapse; open spaces between buildings are structural, not aesthetic

Image summary: A collage of six historical maps and architectural drawings depicting various city layouts and fortifications. The images include three schematic plan views showing street networks and city walls, one detailed illustrative map of a coastal city with labeled districts such as Pera, one artistic rendering of a stone castle perched on a rocky hill, and one high-contrast white-on-black figure-ground diagram of an urban block structure.

: A collage of five images depicting urban landscapes and maps. The top left is an aerial perspective drawing of a dense historical city with a prominent plaza; the top center is a vintage topographical map and cross-section of the island of New York; the top right is a modern aerial photograph of the Manhattan skyline and waterways; the bottom left is a vintage street map of a city layout; and the bottom right is a modern aerial photograph of densely packed residential houses with diverse roof styles.

3.2 Materials

Image summary: A triptych of three photographs showcasing diverse urban landscapes. The left image depicts a dense city with high-rise brick buildings and a large circular stadium. The center image shows a sprawling, crowded settlement of low-rise brick structures built on a hillside under a cloudy sky with mountains in the distance. The right image features classical European-style architecture with a prominent curved building and terraced housing overlooking a green space.

- Bogotá (Colombia) >> long tradition of red clay brick baked in field ovens (chircales) using local clay

- Torres del Parque (Rogelio Salmona, luxury housing) and Barrio Bolívar (peripheral, low-income) share the same red brick

- Material continuity across enormous social differences >> the city has a common material identity

- Bath (U.K) >greater than 18th-century extensions (Circus, Royal Crescent) are formally very different from the medieval core

- Both use local yellow limestone quarried nearby >> formal discontinuity, material continuity

- Material binds the city across time even when formal language changes radically

3.3 Climate

Image summary: A triptych of images. The left is a vintage-style line drawing depicting a tower and a windmill overlooking a detailed, circular map. The center is a modern urban map with highlighted orange zones labeled with numbers and names, such as Zone 13 Centre Est de Montreal and Zone 4 Palais des congres de Montreal. The right is a photograph of a long, perspective-driven hallway featuring a series of classical arches and columns.

- Hippocrates (~450 B.C) >>

city orientation, winds, and sun; cities should be oriented to avoid direct wind funnelling

- Vitruvius >greater than 8-wind model; gates and streets positioned between the main winds

- Montreal >> harsh winters led to underground urbanism from 1962 onwards; subterranean network of streets and squares, movement between blocks without outdoor exposure

- Bologna >> hot humid summers and rainy springs/autumns gave rise to portici (arcaded galleries)

- approximately 38 kilometers of arcades forming a city-wide alternative pedestrian network

- Not one or two but a full system; an alternative urban network running parallel to open streets

already writing about

3.4 Culture

- Paris passages (19th c.) >> cut through interiors of existing blocks; new type of public space responding to bourgeois capitalist culture

- Culture of being seen, representing oneself, trading precious commodities

- Walter Benjamin's Arcades Project >> home of the flâneur (one who walks to see and be seen)

- London garden squares (19th c.) >> created on former common land as London expanded during industrialisation

- Appear public but are fenced >> only residents of surrounding houses hold keys

- Expression of Gentry culture: proximity of green space as exclusive privilege

Image summary: A grayscale urban map displaying a dense network of streets and building blocks, with various specific locations marked by small black lines and corresponding text labels across the city grid.

3.5 Philosophy

Image summary: A side-by-side comparison featuring a photograph of a row of multi-story townhouses facing a green lawn with a wooden bench in the foreground on the left, and a historical city map showing a dense grid of streets and blocks on the right.

- Plato's Politeia >> the city must constantly balance the individual (part) and the collective (whole)

- Good city: citizens have both a city-centre presence and access to more peripheral/rural areas

- Hippodamus of Miletus (influenced by Plato) >> planned Piraeus (harbour of Athens) on a regular grid - Grid as equal distribution of space; clear relation between individual parts and the whole city

3.6 Religion

Image summary: A historical street map of Le Pirée, featuring a dense red urban grid surrounding several ports, including Port d'Palm and Port du Pire. The layout shows the city's coastal geography with various harbors, piers, and the surrounding shoreline.

- Baghdad, Round City of al-Mansur (8th c.) >> circular plan; main mosque and palace at the very centre

- Three concentric rings: mosque + palace, (2) nobility residences, (3) general urban fabric

- Sassanid religious and political order spatially represented in urban fo

- Islamic cities generally >> Quran and Sunna regulate the public/private

- Chaise (public thoroughfares) versus private courtyard domain

- Courtyard typology: clear distinction between private inner domain and collective outer space >> direct spatial translation of religious doctrine

Image summary: An architectural line drawing of a circular city plan featuring a central domed building. Four radial paths extend from the center to the city's outer wall, which is punctuated by four labeled gates: Damascus gate, Kurasan gate, Kufa gate, and Basra gate. The areas between these paths are filled with gardens, trees, and small clusters of buildings.

3.7 Politics

Image summary: A complex architectural site map or archaeological plan consisting of a central cluster of interconnected ruins and structures with various labels branching out to specific areas. The drawing uses line work and hatched areas to indicate walls, rooms, and foundations, with thin lines connecting specific sections of the layout to descriptive text labels such as "MAGAZINE," "QUBBA," and "LOWER SERAGLIO."

- East Berlin, Stalinallee / Karl Marx Allee (from 1952) >> socialist G.D.R counter-model to C.I.A.M / Western urbanism

- Monumental continuous collective buildings, no individual expression >> collectivity before the individual

- Khrushchev visited; urban form as stage for political ideology

- Chandigarh, India >> post-independence commission from P.M Nehru:"We have got to break with the past"

- Modernist city as spatial representation of a new, post-colonial India

- Capitol Complex (Parliament, High Court, Secretariat) expresses the political ambition architecturally

)]), Image summary: A triptych consisting of a poster, a photograph, and a conceptual image. On the left, a colorful poster with German text reading "ZEICHNE DIE AUFBAU-LOTTERIE! DAMIT HILFST DU BERLIN!" depicts two workers in front of a modern building and construction site. The center is a black and white photograph of a military motorcade with motorcycles and cars driving down a wide city street lined with crowds and classical architecture. On the right, a man in a hat and glasses looks at a map titled "PLAN OF NEW CAPITAL" and "CHANDIGARH."

Nationales Autohopprogramm der Haupflahl Berlin 1952

3.8 Social

- Barcelona, Eixample >> mass protests over overcrowding and hygiene in industrial-era city

- Cerda's manzana grid: democratic proposal >> equal access to green, equal access to city centre, e

- qual living conditions for all

- Meknes, Morocco (French Protectorate, early 20th c.) >> colonial tri-part city:

- Moroccan medina >> (2) zone sanitaire (empty buffer) >> European quarter

- Buffer intentionally keeps social groups apart; urban apartheid encoded in plan and realised in landscape

Image summary: A three-part comparison of Barcelona's urban development. The first is a historical architectural plan showing the planned grid expansion of the city. The second is a color-coded mapping diagram with a legend identifying different urban zones. The third is a black and white aerial photograph showing the actual city layout as it existed historically.

3.9 Economic

- Regent Street, London (John Nash, early 19th c.) >> Crown land generating insufficient revenue; Nash commissioned to replace existing buildings with grander ones for higher lease valuesa

- Developer logic recognisable in contemporary cities: demolish and rebuild for higher revenue

- Paris Grands Ensembles / Villes Nouvelles (post-W.W.2) >> mass housing built rapidly on cheap peripheral land with cheapest construction techniques

- Distance from Paris and poor quality are direct consequences of economic constraints, not isolated planning failures

।Image summary: A side-by-side comparison of urban layouts. On the left is a detailed street map showing a traditional, dense, organic urban grid with narrow streets and irregular blocks. The center shows a map of Paris and its surrounding region titled Grands Ensembles, Banlieues Nouvelles, with various geometric symbols marking the locations of large housing developments. On the right is an aerial photograph of a large-scale housing project consisting of numerous long, repetitive, rectangular apartment blocks organized in a rigid, geometric grid around open green spaces.

3.10 Technical

- Chicago (late 19th c.) >> steel skeleton construction + elevator >> skyscraper made possible; new urban design typology of the high-rise city emerges

- Comparison of pre-and post-steel Chicago shows completely transformed urban design vocabulary

- Dessau / Taunton Estate (Germany) >> prefabricated panels placed by cranes; crane rail lines determined where panels could be set

- Street pattern follows crane geometry >> rectilinear despite aspiring to curvilinear form

- Construction logic is literally readable in the urban plan

Image summary: a side-by-side comparison featuring an architectural drawing of a multi-story steel-frame building under construction on the left, and a technical site plan on the right. The center contains a vertical legend listing five different building types labeled SIET O I through SIET O IV, dated between 1927 and 1929. The site plan utilizes these categories to color-code a large residential development layout, showing a dense arrangement of row houses and apartment blocks.

3.11 Art

- Jean-Luc Godard, 2 ou 3 choses que je sais d'elle >> compares repetitive anonymity of Parisian Grands Ensembles to mass-produced consumer products; art as critical lens on urban design

- Robert Doisneau (photographer) >> images of North African migrant workers living on construction sites while building the Grands Ensembles >> social critique in documentary photography

- Ronazioni, Pontine Marshes >> Mussolini's new towns; de Chirico's metaphysical paintings of arcaded squares became direct design models for the central piazzas

- Art as generator of urban form under a political regime

Image summary: A collage of four contrasting images. The top left is a color photograph of various detergent and cleaning product boxes arranged on a green lawn. The top right is an aerial color photograph showing a construction site with a concrete building frame next to a dense area of small, makeshift dwellings and an industrial facility in the distance. The bottom left is a black and white aerial photograph of a planned urban residential area with multi-story apartment blocks. The bottom right is an architectural painting of a surrealist plaza featuring a reclining figure on a pedestal, stark buildings, and a tall column under a dark sky.

4. The Project of History and Theory

- Different traditions exist for telling the history of urban design; this course tells one particular story: an architectural history

4.1 City as Experience

- Louis-Sébastien Mercier (18th c.) >> writes about Paris as lived experience: private quarrels overheard on streets, social texture of daily urban life

- Daniel Defoe >> London as a field of perception and subjective experience

- Georg Simmel >> the metropolis defined not by form but by feelings: anonymity, loneliness, indifference, the blasé attitude as a defence mechanism

4.2 City as Organism

- Patrick Geddes (biologist and urban planner) >> city as a large ecology of humans and non-humans

Image summary: A wide panoramic illustration split into two horizontal panels depicting various industries and urban development. The top panel shows rural activities including quarrying, forestry, hunting, sheep farming, arable farming, cattle farming, market gardening, vineyards, hop fields, and a fishing village. The bottom panel displays a continuous urban streetscape featuring businesses such as a steel mill, gold mining office, timber and paint merchants, a rubber works, woollen goods, a baker and confectioner, a butcher, a green grocer, a jam factory, a brewery, and a port.

- To understand the city you must understand its hinterland: the woods, the fields, the material flows that sustain it

- Illustrated with diagrams placing the city within its full ecological and geographic context

4.3 City as Political Archive

- Christoph Meiners (18th c.) >> the city is a product of political decisions; every political moment leaves its formal trace in urban structure

- History of the city = history of power and political will

4.4 Architectural History (this course's tradition)

- Camillo Sitte >> first systematic plan-study approach

- Careful examination of how buildings, monuments, and public spaces compose with one another

- Piazza San Marco in Venice as model; drawing plans to understand compositional logic

- Hegemann and Peets >> encyclopaedic survey of squares and public spaces in European cities

- >> fine-scale analysis of how Venice evolved over centuries; type, morphological tissue, urban organism as analytical levels

- Aldo Rossi >> city as architectural presence; type, collective memory, permanence

- City is not only zoning: it is a material, spatial, and temporal artefact with architectural character

1.02 — Of Rituals, Water and Mud: The Urban Revolution in Mesopotamia and the Indus

1. Gordon Childe: An Urban Revolution

- Social geographer Gordon Childe: a specific historical moment of vast change >> new groups and new settlement forms emerge

- Happened independently in six parts of the world approximately 9000 B.C.E: Mesoamerica, the Andes, Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus, and China

- The urban revolution grew out of the Neolithic Revolution

Image summary: A world map highlighting six early centers of civilization with dark grey shaded regions. These regions are labeled as Mesoamerica in Central America, the Andes in South America, Egypt in North Africa, Mesopotamia in Western Asia, the Indus region in South Asia, and China in East Asia.

1.1 The Neolithic Revolution

- Domestication of plants and animals >> kept close to home; food supply without constant movement

- Technological changes:

- Irrigation systems >> channels and locks to regulate water flow; massively increased agricultural productivity

- Obsidian tools >> very hard volcanic stone; extraordinarily sharp cutting tools; revolution in harvesting efficiency

- New sedentary way of life >> people settled in one place over time

- New cyclical concept of time >> life tied to seasonal harvest cycles: spring (planting/birth), summer, autumn (harvest), winter

1.2 The Urban Revolution: Three Surpluses

- Resource surplus >> extra grain and goods stored and reinvested in the settlement and its infrastructure

- Social surplus >> safety and reciprocity: harvesting together, raising children collectively, defending the settlement

- Cultural surplus >> living together over time allows accumulation and transmission of crafts, skills, and knowledge

- All three surpluses together propel culture forward and create the conditions for emerging urban settlements

2. Early Settlements of Southwest Asia

2.1 Göbekli Tepe (~9000 B.C.E, current Turkey/Syria border)

- Considered one of the foremost proto-urban settlements known

- Topography >> built on a mound/hilltop; intentional placement for defence

- Two main types of urban form:

- Oval/circular spaces (collective, ritual) >> excavated into the ground, columns forming oval gathering spaces; celebrate cyclical time (spring/birth, harvest, winter)

- Rectangular spaces (dwellings) >> living areas for families

- Columns >> cut from local stone, inscribed with symbols of domesticated animals and plants; supported wooden roofs closing the excavated spaces

- An early collectivity: many families living and gathering together in one place --but not yet a full city

- Located within a cultivated agricultural region

Image summary: An aerial photograph showing an archaeological excavation site in a desert landscape. The site features several excavated areas with exposed stone foundations and wall structures, including a prominent circular building layout and a rectangular protective shelter covering a portion of the ruins. The surrounding terrain is sandy and arid, with a few small patches of olive groves and winding dirt paths.

Image summary: A photograph of two stacked stone relief carvings. The top panel depicts a bird-like creature and other abstract figures, while the bottom panel shows a winged figure above a four-legged animal with a long neck.

Image summary: Two archaeological diagrams, labeled a and b, showing a circular structure. Diagram a is a top-down plan showing a circular outer perimeter surrounding a smaller inner circle containing a web of intersecting structural beams. Diagram b is a cross-section view along line A-B, depicting a curved roof supported by vertical pillars and foundations. Both diagrams include a 5-meter scale bar.

Image summary: A line drawing of a structural framework, possibly a foundation or building base, consisting of an outer perimeter wall with several vertical posts supporting a horizontal top beam. The interior area is filled with a stippled pattern, and a few additional vertical posts are spaced within the center.

2.2 Catal Huyuk (~7400 B.C.E, current Turkey)

- Built on two mounds, very closely connected to water >> essential for agriculture

- Democratic society: strong kinship; children raised by the entire community

- approximately 10,000 people; constructed of mud bricks and timber

- Obsidian tools for harvesting >> precious material, revolutionary for agricultural productivity

Image summary: A composite of six archaeological figures. Top left shows five ancient bone tool fragments of varying shapes. Top center is a topographic site map with contour lines and a small labeled area. Top right is a photograph of an excavated archaeological site with multiple stone room foundations and pits. Middle left is a 3D architectural cutaway drawing of a multi-room structure with interior details. Middle center is a 2D floor plan of a dense cluster of rectangular rooms. Middle right is a drawing showing a red-shaded organic area adjacent to a grid of small rooms. Bottom left is a technical cross-section diagram of a structure's walls and floors. Bottom center is an isometric building model of a clustered settlement. Bottom right is a detailed labeled floor plan identifying rooms and courts.

Figure 7 summary: A line drawing showing a section and reconstruction of house E VI, including an entrance shaft.

2.2a The Dwelling Type

- One single dwelling type repeated across the entire settlement

- Each dwelling divided into three parts:

- Cooking >> food preparation

- Living and sleeping >> daily domestic life

- Rituals >> small shrine for domesticated animals and plants; the ritual dimension of

Gobekli Tepe brought inside the individual home

2.2b Urban Form: No Doors, No Streets

- No doors and no streets >> driven entirely by defence; streets were considered a weak point for enemy penetration

- Circulation via rooftops and ladders >> insiders knew the way, hostile outsiders could not navigate

- Courts between houses used for waste storage

- This roof-landscape was a smart collective defence strategy: security through spatial opacity

3. The Bronze Age Cities of Mesopotamia

3.1 Context

- Mesopotamia >> the region between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris (modern-day Iraq and part of ee-rahn)

- Fertile alluvial plains >> extremely rich agricultural soil deposited by the rivers

- Major trade routes along the Euphrates and Tigris >> copper, obsidian, rare materials traded; cross-cultural exchange of urban design ideas

- Agricultural technologies: chariot, plough, and sophisticated irrigation systems (channels and locks)

- Sumerian civilisation >> their ability to control water through irrigation was foundational

Image summary: A collage of six historical and archaeological references related to Mesopotamia. The top left is a map of the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf, marking ancient cities like Ur, Uruk, and Babylon. The top middle and right are photographs of ancient wooden farming tools, resembling early plows. The bottom left shows a clay tablet with early cuneiform script and schematic carvings. The bottom middle is a photograph of a dense cuneiform text tablet. The bottom right contains two archaeological site plans: a smaller layout labeled Eridu and Sosa, and a larger topographic map of the city of Uruk with a 2 km scale bar.

3.2 Sumerian Cities: Common Characteristics

- First written descriptions of cities >> clay tablets in cuneiform; Epic of Gilgamesh (~2100 B.C.E): Uruk's walls, orchards, clay pits, open ground of Ishtar's temple

- Independent and self-governing city-states >> basic political unit, analogous to the later Greek polis

- Religion as central organising force >> each city belonged to a god or goddess; Lugal (mortal king) led on behalf of the deity; religious precinct = religious + economic + administrative centre

- Walled cities >> defence as a governing principle of urban life and form

- Property maps on clay tablets >> early urban cartography defining which part of the city belongs to whom

3.3 Uruk (~3000 B.C.E)

- 6 square kilometres >> largest city in the world at the time; 50,000 inhabitants

- Dedicated to Inanna (lana), goddess of love and war

- Religious precinct within 800m radius of all inhabitants >> approximately 10-minute walk from anywhere; deliberately accessible

- Mud bricks (~45x24x8 centimeters) >> local clay + straw, sun-dried; vulnerable to rain; city rebuilt time and time again

- Each rebuilding layer produced a Tel (artificial mound of debris) >> later reinterpreted as the ziggurat form

- Ziggurat >> stepped platform with temple on top; raises temple approximately 30m above city;

processional Axis Mundi ascent; highlights central importance of religion in urban design

।Image summary: A side-by-side presentation featuring a map of the City of Uruk on the left and a photograph of an ancient clay tablet on the right. The map depicts the city's layout as a series of overlapping circular zones within a larger boundary, situated near a river. The photograph shows a rectangular, light-colored clay tablet with an engraved figure, positioned next to a metric scale and a color calibration chart for size and color reference.

Image summary: A side-by-side comparison of two ancient stone structures. The left photo shows a weathered stone carving of a human figure wearing a pointed hat and holding a rectangular object across their chest. The right photo shows a stone wall featuring intricate, geometric lattice-work carvings of intersecting diagonal lines.

Image summary: A two-part architectural drawing of the White Temple on a platform. The left side is a top-down floor plan labeling a Terrace, a Ramp, the White Temple building, and a Platform, with a 20-meter scale bar. The right side is a perspective line drawing showing the temple as a rectangular structure perched atop a high, sloping base.

3.4 Ur (~2100 B.C.E) --Relating Collective and Individual Life

- Largest Sumerian city: 65,000 inhabitants (~0.1% of global population)

- Two intramural ports (within the walls) + canal through the city >> trade shapes city form - Code of Ur-Nammu >> forbids theft of land and other crimes; early urban law regulating collective and individual domains

- Courtyard house typology:

- Completely closed wall to the street >> single lobby leads to the courtyard (4-5m wide, impluvium-like, open to elements)

- 1 to 2 storeys high; mud bricks reinforced with timber

- Walls 4 to 5 layers thick >> thermal mass for climate regulation

- Rounded corners at street junctions >> fluid circulation through narrow streets

- Ziggurat of Ur >greater than 300x400m base; monumental stairs up multiple platforms; Axis Mundi; still partially preserved today

- City layout linked to topography

Image summary: A three-part composite including a site plan, a 3D architectural reconstruction, and an artistic interior rendering of an ancient Mesopotamian city. The left plan identifies the Euphrates River, the Ziggurat of Ur-nammu, the North and West ports, and the fortress and city walls. The middle line drawing provides a perspective view of the dense urban layout centered around the ziggurat complex. The right illustration depicts a multi-story domestic interior with a central open courtyard and wooden balconies.

Image summary: An architectural floor plan of a complex of interconnected rooms and courtyards. The drawing uses thick gray lines to represent walls and shaded gray areas to indicate specific interior zones or courtyards. A scale bar at the bottom provides measurements in two different units, with the top scale reaching 75 and the bottom scale reaching 25.

Image summary: A wide-angle photograph of the stone ruins of an ancient structure, featuring a series of interconnected rectangular rooms and arched doorways. The ruins are situated in a flat, arid desert landscape under a bright, blue sky with wispy white clouds.

Image summary: A three-part visual presentation of an ancient stepped structure, consisting of a floor plan, an isometric line drawing, and a photograph. The floor plan on the left labels various sections with numbers 1 through 4. The center drawing shows a multi-tiered rectangular ziggurat with a central raised platform and a long ramp leading up the side. The photograph on the right shows the actual ruins of the structure's wide, steep stone staircase ascending toward the top.

3.5 New Building Techniques

- True arch >> structural innovation enabling vaulted spaces without timber centering

- Corbelled vaults >> found in tombs and shrines approximately 2100 B.C.E; sophisticated spatial construction from simple mud bricks

- Dual role of the ruler >> Lugal (war leader) + En (religious and civic leader, mediator with gods)

- Trade routes required military defence >> religious authority legitimised political control - Cities exercised: internal control (Code of Ur-Nammu, religion) + external domination (military defence of trade routes)

Figure 10101 summary: A composite image featuring three panels of ancient Mesopotamian architecture and art. The top left photograph shows an exterior wall of sun-dried mud bricks with a rounded archway. The top right photograph shows a deep, triangular-shaped brick descent or pit. The bottom panel is a wide, rectangular relief carving with a blue background, depicting several registers of figures, including horse-drawn chariots and processions of people in traditional attire.

4. The Cities of the Indus

4.1 Context

- Region along the Indus River >> border of modern-day India and Pakistan

- Similar alluvial plain to Mesopotamia; people started domesticating plants and animals

- Hydraulic civilisation >> water as the central resource and organising principle of urban life

4.2 Mohenjo-daro (~2600 B.C.E)

Image summary: A side-by-side comparison of two archaeological site plans of Mohenjo-daro. The left image is a broad site plan showing the general topography, including the Stupa Mound and surrounding landscape. The right image is a detailed architectural layout of a residential area, featuring a grid of streets, lanes, and numbered house structures, including labeled sections HR-A and HR-B.

Image summary: A series of architectural studies consisting of a photograph, a perspective drawing, and two diagrams. The photograph shows a narrow alleyway between high, textured tan walls. The perspective drawing depicts an interior space with a beamed ceiling, a tiled floor, and a doorway. The diagrams include a top-down floor plan and a 3D axonometric projection of a building complex characterized by interlocking rectangular volumes and open courtyards.

: Two side-by-side photographs of ancient stone ruins. The left image shows a narrow walkway between tall, weathered stone walls, with a caption identifying the location as the lower town, circa 2600 BC. The right image shows a top-down perspective of parallel stone-lined channels or gutters running between ruins.

Image summary: A line drawing map of an archaeological site featuring various structures and topographical contour lines. Labeled key areas include a Great Bath, a Granary, and Fortifications. A scale bar at the bottom indicates a distance of 100 meters.

Image summary: An architectural floor plan diagram showing a complex of interconnected rooms and courtyards. The layout consists of a central cluster of small, irregular rooms flanked by larger rectangular spaces, including a prominent open courtyard area on the right and a segmented area on the left. A scale bar at the bottom right indicates dimensions in meters, ranging from 0 to 120.

- 20,000-30,000 people; built on two mounds -- topography again fundamental

- Baked (kiln-fired) bricks >> $ 28 \times 14 \times 7 $ cm; more durable and waterproof than Mesopotamian sun-dried mud bricks; used for buildings, streets, drains, and all urban infrastructure

4.2a Housing Typology

- Courtyard house: no direct opening to the street; lobby leads to courtyard ( similar 10m2)

- Ground floor >> washing and cooking performed by lower-class inhabitants

- Upper floors >> living and sleeping for upper-class inhabitants; upper levels could look down on lower class

- New social hierarchies spatially encoded in the vertical section of the house

- Dense urban fabric produced by repetition of this typology across the city

4.2b Road and Water Infrastructure

- Hierarchy of streets >> main streets (shops, public services) greater than secondary streets (access to homes) greater than tertiary lanes

- First emergence of a structured hierarchy of public and private domains via street network

- Every house had a bathroom >> well for clean water + showering platform with outlet to sewer (~2600 B.C.E)

- Most European homes lacked bathrooms until the 20th century

- Sophisticated sewer system >> covered drains beneath main streets, connected through walls to private bathrooms; public toilets connected to drainage network

4.2c The Centre: Granary and Great Bath

- Fundamental difference from Mesopotamian cities >> centre defined not by religion but by water and collective life

- Collective granary >> large structure at highest topographic point; surplus grain stored for the entire city; insurance against harvest failure; symbol of collective care

- Great Bath >greater than 12x7m, 2.5m deep; baked bricks sealed with bitumen mortar + gypsum plaster (waterproof); surrounded by rooms for political discussions and governance

- Not only washing and leisure >> primary civic gathering space for collective decisions

- Identity of Mohenjo-daro based on mastery of water >> as infrastructure, as social symbol, and as generator of urban form

5. Comparative Summary

- Proto-urban settlements (Gobekli Tepe, Catal Huyuk) >> sedentary life brings safety, kinship, care; ritual and defence as organising forces

- Sumerian cities (Uruk, Ur) >greater than 50,000 to 65,000 people; religion + trade + politics as organising forces; mud brick and ziggurat; relation between collective (temple precinct) and individual (courtyard house)

- Mohenjo-daro >> hydraulic civilisation; baked brick; hierarchical street system; sophisticated water infrastructure; water --not religion --at the civic centre

- Running thread >> topography always fundamental; trade routes transmit urban design knowledge cross-culturally; courtyard house appears across Mesopotamia and the Indus as a shared typological response to dense urban living

1.03 — The Idea of the Polis: Rome, Greece and Beyond

1. Context: Pre-Greek Settlements and Colonisation

- History of Mediterranean urban design did not begin with Athens — aristocratic settlements preceded it

- Crete (2700 to 1100 B.C.E) >> palace of Knossos — concentration of aristocratic power, not yet truly urban

- Mycenae >> impressive citadel, settlement not a city

- From 7th c. B.C.E: Greek populations colonised the Mediterranean shoreline; cities founded on colonised territory

- Trade routes >> movement of people, goods, and ideas about urban design across the region

: Image summary: A side-by-side comparison showcasing the ancient site of Mycenae. The left side is an aerial photograph of the citadel and surrounding ruins nestled in a rugged, mountainous landscape. The right side is a close-up photograph of the Lion Gate, featuring a monumental stone lintel topped by a relief of two lions flanking a central column.

2. The Athenian Agora (500 B.C.E to 100 B.C.E)

2.1 Bouleuterion and Tholos — Democratic Governance

- Bouleuterion >> building dedicated to democratic governance; speaker at front, stepped seating for the assembly

- Radical contrast to Knossos: architecture now serves collective democratic power, not aristocratic concentration

- Tholos (circular building, added approximately 150 years later) >> always staffed by two permanent representatives ready to receive citizens

- Offices and archives alongside >> systematic record of democratic decisions; democracy required documentation

: A collection of maps, floor plans, and photographs depicting the ancient Agora of Athens. The top two panels show comparative maps of the Archaic Agora and the Agora after Hellenistic remodeling around 200 BC. The middle panel contains a site plan of the Bouleuterion, a corresponding floor plan, and a line drawing of the interior theater-like seating. The bottom panel features a detailed architectural plan of the Bouleuterion, Metroon, Prytanikon, Tholos, and Exedra, alongside a photograph of the circular ruins of the Tholos set against a mountainous backdrop.

2.2 The Stoa — Colonnaded Portico

- Colonnaded covered walkway >> connecting element between buildings; informal space for meeting and debate

- Evolution >> from rudimentary wooden structures to monumental buildings with large columns, ornamental bases, statues

- Originally very colourful >> heavily decorated with colourful motifs; not the white stone seen in museums today

- Stoa of Attalos >> most elaborate example: monumental columns, large covered passageway, ceremonial stair sequence

- By the 2nd c. B.C.E >> stoas surrounded nearly every building on the agora, defining its entire spatial character

: A composite of architectural drawings and a photograph depicting a classical Greek structure. The top-left is a cross-section elevation showing a columned porch with a pitched roof and a human figure for scale. The top-right is a floor plan detailing the layout of the columns and interior walls. The bottom-left photograph shows a long perspective view of a row of white columns supporting a dark wooden ceiling. The bottom-right contains two line drawings showing a detailed view of the base of the columns and a staircase descending into a lower level with a human figure for scale.

: A reconstruction drawing of the Athenian Agora in A.D. 150, depicting a detailed layout of the city's civic center. The map features numerous numbered buildings and landmarks, including the Stoa of Zeus, the Temple of Apollo Patreos, the Hephaisteion, the South Stoa, the Roman Forum, and the Library of Hadrian. The Acropolis overlooks the city from a hill on the right, and the Lykabettos hill and Ilissos River are visible in the background.

2.3 Commerce, Culture, Knowledge

- Aiakeion (south side) >> grain storage + stoa market where goods were sold; the agora also a place of trade

- Odeion >> centre of agora, approximately 1,000 people, concerts, theatre and music — core of Greek cultural life

- Library of Panteinos >> triangular building: books and archives for citizens to consult

- All five functions in one space >> political + religious + commercial + cultural + knowledge = singular centralite

Image summary: This composite image displays architectural drawings and models of the Aiakeion, a Greek structure from the late 5th century BC. The collection includes cross-sectional elevations, detailed floor plans showing a tiered seating area, a site map, a stone wall construction diagram, and two perspective models providing a three-dimensional view of the building's layout and its relationship to surrounding pathways.

3. Hippodamus and the Classical Greek City

3.1 Hippodamus of Miletus (498 to 408 B.C.E)

- Described by Aristotle as the pioneer of urban planning

- Ideal city >greater than 10,000 free male citizens, total approximately 50,000 (including women, children, slaves)

- Three citizen classes >> soldiers, artisans, and husbandmen

- studied the functional problems of cities and linked them to the state administration system

- Three land types >> sacred, public, and private; class-based society despite democratic ideals

3.2 Miletus — Grid City Prototype

- Peninsula in the Aegean Sea >> two grid sizes responding to topography

- Smaller grid >> narrow north part of the peninsula

- Larger grid >> wider south part; the grid intelligently adapts to local conditions

- Two harbours (north and south), each with its own agora

- Agora contents >> Stadium, Heroon (religious shrine), Bouleuterion (semicircular + stoa), Gymnasium (mind + body, military prep), Theatre

- Miletus as prototype >> first fully grid-planned city; model for all subsequent Greek and Roman planned cities

Image summary: A black and white architectural plan map of the ancient city of Milet, featuring a grid-like street layout organized within the city's irregular boundaries. The map includes a compass rose in the upper left, topographical contour lines to the south, and a scale bar and legend at the bottom right.

Image summary: A black and white topographic map of a coastal landmass, featuring contour lines to indicate elevation and a north arrow for orientation. A series of shaded rectangular blocks are situated across the central narrow portion of the landmass, indicating a specific site or archaeological excavation area. A scale bar is provided at the bottom right.

: Image summary: A black and white architectural floor plan of a rectangular building. The right side features a large central open courtyard surrounded by a perimeter of columns. The left side consists of a series of enclosed rooms partitioned by walls.

Image summary: An architectural site plan diagram of an ancient city grid, featuring various structured enclosures and plazas labeled with letters. Key areas include a large natural body of water labeled A in the upper left and a large rectangular courtyard labeled N in the lower center. Other labeled structures include B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, K, M, P, Q, R, T, and U, dispersed across a grid of streets and blocks.

: Image summary: A wide-angle photograph of the ruins of an ancient Roman-style amphitheater, featuring a semi-circular arrangement of stone tiered seating facing a central flat orchestra area. The structure is built into a hillside and is characterized by weathered, light-gray stone blocks, with significant erosion and collapse visible around the perimeter.

।Image summary: An architectural floor plan of an ancient semi-circular amphitheater. The drawing shows tiered seating areas arranged in concentric arcs around a central orchestral space and a stage area. Below the stage is a series of small, rectangular rooms. A scale bar at the bottom indicates the total width of the structure is approximately 100 meters.

A Harbor B Baths of Humei Tepe C Harbor Monument D Harbor Stoa E Harbor Gate F Delphinion G Baths of Vergilius Capito H North Agora J Bouleterion K Nymphaeum M Market Gate N South Agora P Baths of Faustina Q Palaestr R Museion S Basilical Hall T Aqueduct U Hellenistic Gymnasium

The Greco-Roman Theatre at Miletus (modern Balat, Turkey) Caves width: 139.80 m, orchestra width: 27.34 m; capacity: 14,000/18,500; ca. 250-225 BC. Plan (T.H. after H. Knackfusa)

3.3 Alexander the Great — Grid as Colonising Tool

- Macedonian ruler who colonised territory from the Mediterranean east to Asia

- Grid >> core colonising principle; laying out new cities on virgin territory; instrument of territorial conquest and control

3.4 Olynthus – Classical Grid City

- Grid on steep topography; blocks >greater than 86 x 35 m, each holding 10 courtyard houses (~17 x 17 m) variation in between the houses and the grid

- Courtyard houses oriented south >> main rooms face south for sunlight; a climatic decision

- Urban consequence >> north-side houses need smaller tertiary alleyway for access

- Three-tier street hierarchy >> main road, secondary road, tertiary alley into the block

Image summary: A side-by-side architectural presentation of Olynthus. The left side is a topographic site map showing the layout of the city across North and South Hill, including the North Cemetery, Agora, and Villa Section, bounded by a river and fortification walls. The right side is a detailed floor plan of Blocks A iv, B ix, and Row A, displaying a grid of domestic dwellings and a house-numbering scheme along a fortification wall.

Figure 3.4 summary: An isometric architectural drawing of a residential complex in Olynthos, depicting a row of connected houses with red-tiled roofs and yellow walls. The drawing provides a cutaway view that reveals internal layouts, including small rooms, courtyards, and storage areas, accompanied by a legend and a scale bar.

Image summary: A floor plan diagram of a building layout featuring various rooms organized around a central courtyard. The plan includes two North Rooms, a Bath, and a Kitchen-Complex at the top; a central open area labeled Pastas and a Pastas Room to the right; and a Shop, Courtyard, Anteroom, and Andron at the bottom. Two horizontal Axis lines are marked on the right side of the plan.

Image summary: A collection of six black and white architectural drawings and plans depicting ancient urban structures. The top section includes a 3D isometric cutaway of a building and two corresponding floor plans labeled Oikos, Courtyard, Entrance, and Street, featuring a scale bar of 10 meters. The middle section contains a detailed bird's-eye view of a cluster of adjacent buildings and a perspective drawing of a circular courtyard surrounded by a stone structure. The bottom section shows a large-scale site plan with gold-colored grid lines overlaid on an archaeological map, paired with a large 3D reconstruction of a city block.

- Each house >> two buildings: smaller (storage/shop) + larger (living quarters, up to 2 levels)

3.5 Priene — Extreme Topography - Very steep hillside >> two-part city: lower residential grid + upper Acropolis - Grid: blocks 47 x 35 m, 8 elongated courtyard houses per block, oriented south, sharing party

4. Hellenistic Cities (323 to 31 B.C.E)

4.1 Pergamon — Monumentality without Grid

- No grid >> Hellenistic tendency to monumentalise existing urban settlements instead

- Acropolis >> exploits dramatic topography for sculptural effect: theatre carved into steep slope, temples and stoas around it

- Pergamon Altar (now in Berlin's Pergamon Museum) >> extreme monumentality of the Hellenistic agora

- All agora elements (stoa, gymnasium, Bouleuterion) retained but transformed into monuments

Image summary: A detailed archaeological site map of the Akropolis, featuring a topographical layout with contour lines and various identified structures outlined in purple. The map marks specific historical sites including the Theater, various temples, and the Heiliger Bezirk, illustrating the spatial relationship and distribution of buildings across the elevated terrain.

Image summary: A black and white architectural site plan of an archaeological excavation. Key labeled areas include the Stadtgrabung, Ost Thermen, Westthermen, Demeter Heiligtum, and three sections of a gymnasium: Oberes, Mittleres, and Unteres Gymnasion. The plan also identifies Bau Z and Heraheil, with a Hauptstrabe road running along the eastern side.

Image summary: A line drawing reconstruction of an ancient Greek city complex situated on a hillside. The illustration depicts a tiered arrangement of monumental architecture, featuring several temples with columns, a large open-air semicircular theater, and expansive colonnaded walkways and fortifications built into the sloping terrain.

Image summary: A wide-angle photograph of the Pergamon Altar, a massive ancient Greek architectural structure housed within a museum gallery. The altar features a grand central staircase leading up to a colonnaded terrace, flanked by two protruding wings with high-relief sculptures carved into the stone bases.

Image summary: A monochromatic 3D architectural model of a dense urban area, depicting a highly compact grid of buildings interspersed with several larger, prominent complexes and an oval stadium-like structure.

4.2 Dura (Syria) — Grid on Colonial Territory

- Colony on the Euphrates in the Mesopotamian region

- 64 city blocks of 70 x 35 m; 9 longitudinal + 12 cross streets; 1 main street 36 feet wide; 8 blocks for agora

- Local mud bricks >> grid principle imported, local building tradition maintained

- Courtyard houses produce very dense intricate block patterns >> grid as instrument of colonisation

Image summary: A detailed archaeological map of Dura-Europos showing the city's urban layout. The map depicts a grid of streets and blocks enclosed by a defensive wall with several towers and gates, including a Main Gate. An extensive legend identifies specific sites across the city, including various private houses, a Roman Bath, a synagogue, a Mithraeum, and temples dedicated to Zeus, Artemis, and others.

Image summary: A black and white architectural floor plan or site map showing various partitioned areas labeled as flats, including flat 01, flat 02, flat 03, flat 04, flat 07, and flat 08. The map includes labels for Market street and Main street, and a scale indicator of 10 meters.

5. The Beginning of Urbanism in the West

- Megara Hyblaea (~753 to 483 B.C.E, Sicily) >> irregular grid in two directions; agora at the junction where the two grids meet

- Marzabotto (~400 B.C.E, near Bologna) >> grid city, courtyard house typology, drainage infrastructure following the grid

Image summary: A site map of an archaeological area featuring a bounded plot of land. Key labeled locations within the site include a santuario (sanctuary) to the west, an agora to the east, and a porta Marina (Marina gate) at the northern boundary. A possible port, labeled porto?, is indicated outside the boundary to the north. A scale bar at the bottom left denotes 200 meters.

Image summary: A side-by-side pair of aerial photographs showing an archaeological site. The left image shows a wide view of a coastal peninsula with ruins and buildings situated on a rocky outcrop overlooking the sea. The right image provides a top-down close-up of the ruins, revealing a rectangular grid of foundation walls and corridors embedded in a grassy field.

6. Roman Town Planning

6.1 Context

- Roman Republic 500 to 27 B.C.E; then Roman Empire to 476 C.E

- Urban design as colonisation >> cities built as instruments of military and territorial conquest

- Roman cities — like Greek ones — were built by slaves

- Central urban figure >> Forum (instead of agora): where citizens and politicians gathered for political discussion, legal administration, and business

6.2 Forum Romanum — The Prototype Forum

- Between Capitoline Hill and Palatine Hill near the Tiber >> previously a swamp

- Cloaca Maxima >> great drain (6th c. B.C.E): drained the swamp and created buildable ground for the Forum

- Key buildings:

- Curia >> Senate of elderly wise senators

- Committeem >> citizen assembly for pressing issues (from 6th c. B.C.E)

- Rostra >> public speaking tribune; all citizens entitled to give speeches

- Basilicas of Emilia and Sempronia >> legal administration and trade; taberniae (shops) fronting the public space

- Basilica plan >> two colonnaded naves + open central nave = origin of the Christian church

- Multiple emperors contributed additional fora; sometimes reused materials (spolia) from earlier structures

Image summary: A black and white architectural plan of 1st century BC Roman Italy, featuring a large-scale map of the city center and a detailed inset of the Forum area. The map identifies key landmarks including the Colosseum (Amphitheatrum Flavium), Circus Maximus, Forum Romanum, and various basilicas and temples. A red line indicates a specific boundary or path cutting through the center of the city layout.

Image summary: A composite of three archaeological illustrations. The top left is a architectural floor plan of a building complex located between Corso, Via del Tritone, and Vmberto I, near Piazza Colonna. The top right is a topographical map showing contours and street labels including Vico Colonna and Vico Pappalardo. The bottom left is a detailed architectural elevation drawing of a multi-story building facade with arched openings and windows. The bottom right is a photograph of a fragmented stone tablet featuring a grid-like engraving of lines and dots.

6.4 The Castrum — Roman Military Colony System

- Castrum >> Roman military camp as model for all new cities: mark a wall, subdivide along parallel axes

- Groma >> Roman surveying instrument to establish N-S and E-W axes; operated by specialist Mensores

- Cardo >> north-south axis; Decumanus >> east-west axis; Forum always at their crossing

- Centuria >> unit of land measurement = 2,400 x 2,400 Roman feet (~50 hectares)

- Cadaster >> land measurement plan derived from this system; still used today

Image summary: A collection of six diagrams and photographs illustrating Roman urban planning and engineering. The set includes a detailed floor plan of a Roman castrum featuring a Principia (Legionary Headquarters), Praetorium (Commander's House), workshops, barracks, and store-rooms; a line drawing of surveyors using a groma tool for land measurement; a schematic diagram of the Decumanus (East-West) and Kardo (North-South) axes; a photograph of a paved Roman road lined with columns; a cross-sectional engineering drawing of Roman road layers; and two map-like plans showing city layouts organized around the central Decumanus and Kardo axes.

6.5 Roman City Examples

- Cosa (Italy) >> Forum at Cardo/Decumanus crossing; axes do not align precisely with true N-S/E-W (Groma imprecise); two temples (273 B.C.E), Curia, basilica

- Timgad (Algeria) >> military colony in North Africa; monumental roads and gate; city grew beyond original walled plan; monumentality expresses imperial power

- Verona and Lucca >> Roman Cardo and Decumanus still visible in urban structure today; Roman layer as palimpsest

- Augusta Raurica (near Basel) >> Swiss Roman city: temple + porticoed precinct + open forum courtyard + basilica + Curia; beside the Rhine; still visible today

7. Conclusion

- Two key urban figures >> Agora (Greek) and Forum (Roman); both combined political, religious, commercial, and cultural functions

- Grid >> foundational tool of both civilisations; flexible, adaptable to topography, globally applicable as instrument of colonisation

- Urban design and colonisation inseparable in both Greek and Roman civilisations; cities built by slaves

1.04 — The Long Middle Ages and Their Counterparts: From the Towns of Tuscany to Delhi

1. Introduction: The Middle Ages Reconsidered

- Middle Ages often called 'dark ages' — but the opposite is true for urban design

- Begin with the fall of the Roman Empire (476 C.E) >> Viking (Norman) raids from Denmark, Sweden, Norway: stealing metals, goods, capturing slaves, reaching as far as Constantinople

- Defence became the dominant organising principle >> the medieval city is above all a city of defence

2. Religious Patterns and Practices

- Monasticism >> Catholic Church creates a dense pattern of monasteries to establish religious presence across Europe

- Christianity becomes legal in late Roman Empire >> accelerates church-based urbanisation

- Islam >> Mohammed born 570 to 632 C.E; Islam spreads rapidly toward Europe, Mediterranean, South Asia (military conquests reaching India)

- Crusades >> religiously motivated military campaigns to reconquer the Holy Land from Islam; also channels for East-West knowledge exchange

3. Commercial Links and Urban Logics: The Hanseatic

League

- Hanseatic League (Hanza) >> commercial and defensive confederation of merchant guilds and market towns in Northwestern and Central Europe; connected London, Bruges, Copenhagen, Scandinavia. Russia

- Network maintained primarily over sea routes (port cities), but also over land

- Transport infrastructure >> ships, wheeled vehicles, pack animals; docks, quays, cranes for loading/unloading

- Storage infrastructure >> large warehouses (brick) for goods directly off the water

Image summary: A map showing a blue highlighted travel route through Northern Europe, starting from London and moving northeast through Belgium and the Netherlands, passing through Germany and Denmark, and ending in Norway.

- Exchange infrastructure >> contracts, bills of exchange, notaries, expert currency handling - Knowledge network >> trade knowledge and architectural/city-design knowledge both transmitted along these routes

4. Informal Logics and Patterns: Feudalism and the

Medieval Town

4.1 Feudal Society

- Three tiers >> Territorial lords: hold land in return for service to king, Sub-tenants: hold smaller land in return for service to lords, Adscripti glebae ('bound to the soil'): largest category, belonging to the territory, owned by sub-tenants

- Cities were the exception >> separate legal and administrative standing from the feudal system

- Stadtluft macht frei >> living in a city for a year granted freedom from feudal bonds

- Charter >> conferred legal and economic rights; elected council whose jurisdiction was separate from and independent of feudal jurisdiction

- Various levels of independence >> city-state (Florence, Siena: completely independent) or restricted independence; every city unique in plan, function, and social structure

- Cities as palimpsests >> made of several historical layers, some erased, some still legible

4.2 Palermo — A Palimpsest of Empires

Image summary: A panoramic landscape illustration of Palermo, featuring a dense city of white buildings with red roofs situated along a coastline. The city is bordered by a defensive wall and sits before a range of large, green mountains. Several sailing ships are anchored in the harbor in the foreground.

Image summary: A line drawing of a numerical puzzle grid consisting of interlocking rectangular cells containing numbers from 1 to 100. The numbers are arranged non-sequentially across the irregular shape, with some cells shaded gray and others left white.

Image summary: A black and white urban plan diagram showing a dense network of buildings and narrow streets, bisected horizontally by a single wide, straight road.

- Palermo (Sicily) >> ruled successively by Roman, Arab, Norman, and Aragonese empires — all layers visible in the urban fabric

- Roman Cardo and Decumanus (two large main streets) still legible beneath the seemingly informal medieval street pattern

- Study (U.C.L, London) >> proved that even in the most informal urban fabrics, two structural logics are always present:

- Parting wall >> there is always a full shared wall between two adjacent cells

- Open-space phase >> at least one face of every cell always fronts an open space

- Applies to Palermo and universally to medieval organic fabrics: looks informal, but is structurally coherent

।Figure 4.2 summary: An old, detailed map of Palermo, Italy, showing the city's urban layout, street grids, and coastline bordering the sea. The map includes a title "PALERMO" in the upper right, accompanied by a legend of labels and keyed locations.

4.3 Gassin — Topographic Urban Pattern

Image summary: Two diagrams showing a city layout. The top diagram is a black-and-white figure-ground map where black represents built-up areas and white represents open space, including a scale bar marking 0 to 50 meters. The bottom diagram is a line drawing of the same area, illustrating the street network and block boundaries.

: An aerial photograph of a dense, historic village perched on a forested hill, with a church spire visible at the center. The surrounding landscape consists of expansive green forests and rolling hills that extend toward a distant coastline and the sea.

- Plan appears highly irregular, responds closely to topography >> but the same Hillier & Hanson two-logic structure applies

- Always one parting wall, always one phase facing open space >> a universal medieval spatial logic

- Small medieval hillside town in the Var region, South of France

Figure 4.3 summary: A line drawing map of a small town layout bounded by a river on the top and bottom. The map identifies three key landmarks: a Church in the upper left, a Town Hall in the center, and a Post Office at the bottom. The town consists of numerous small, irregularly shaped plots of land separated by a network of narrow streets, with a scale bar at the bottom indicating a total length of 50 meters.

5. The Monastery and Beyond: Towards New Urban Patterns

Image summary: An architectural floor plan of the Lower Church and Monastery of San Francesco at Assisi. The drawing features a cross-shaped church layout with a vaulted ceiling structure, accompanied by a detailed legend numbering various sections including the porch, various chapels, the choir, and the monastery complex.

- Bishop emerges >> representative of the Pope;

cathedrals built on sites of Roman temples or basilicas

- Craftsmen established workshops near the cathedral >> symbolic and functional core of new urban development

- Monasteries >> not just churches but large complexes: nursing the ill, assisting the poor, safe-houses for travellers, preserving culture (copying Roman and Greek texts, cultivating arts)

5.1 Arras — Three-Part Medieval Urban Formula

- Cathedral in the old Roman city (neatly organised) + Monastery of Saint-Vaast alongside + Defence wall surrounding the whole

- Bipolar religious structure >> cathedral (bishop) + monastery; both plus defence = typical medieval urban formula

Image summary: An antique illustrative map of a fortified city divided into two main sections by a waterway. The right side shows a densely packed urban area with a network of narrow streets and various buildings, while the left side contains more open green spaces and fewer structures. Both sections are enclosed by defensive walls and a surrounding moat. A decorative legend is located in the top left corner, and a coat of arms is positioned at the top center.

Image summary: An antique illustration depicting a walled city dominated by a large cathedral with two prominent spires. In the foreground, a rural landscape features rolling hills, scattered houses with red roofs, clusters of trees, and two people walking along a dirt path.

5.2 St. Gallen — The Ideal Monastery Plan

- 9th-century model plan on parchment (still viewable at the Abbey of St. Gallen today) >> rationally zoned; gathers all city functions in one bounded place

- Centre: religious functions (church, monks' dormitories, kitchens)

- Right: crafts and workshops, granary

- Bottom: animals and agriculture

- Left: school, guest quarters, travellers

- Top: infirmary + graveyard (also gardens for the hospital)

- The monastery as prototype city >> rational functional zoning; predecessor to modern urban planning; only a small fraction of the ideal plan was actually built

Image summary: An isometric architectural line drawing of the Plan of Saint Gall, a medieval monastic complex. The drawing depicts a walled rectangular enclosure containing a large church with two tall towers, a cloister, various residential and utility buildings with pitched roofs, and gardening areas. The Latin text MONASTERIVM S CI GALLI is written at the bottom right.

Image summary: A technical architectural floor plan or site map consisting of numerous interconnected rectangular and circular enclosures, rooms, and courtyards. The layout features a large, central elongated complex with a semicircular entrance and exit, surrounded by smaller peripheral structures and grids of smaller rooms, some of which are labeled with numbers.

6. The City as Expression of Defensive Logics: Burhs, Bastides, and Fortresses

* Wastew Green Fuller each does Fecultures ... t.t... it...

6.1 Burhs — Anglo-Saxon Fortified Towns

- Series of fortified towns in southern England >> the Burghal Hidage fortification system, built to defend against Norman raids

- Principle: within a one-day travel (approx. 30 kilometers), people from the surrounding territory could reach the burh and shelter inside its walls

- Pembroke >> a key example of a burh, situated along a river in southern England

- Herringbone plan >> one central wide street; very deep plots (burgage plots) serving two functions:

- Houses at the street end; Long garden behind — to grow food during raids (self-sufficiency inside the walls)

- Within the burh >> one or two churches, marketplace where street widens (with toll booth), fortified castle as last refuge

- Commons >> common agricultural fields outside the walls, used in peacetime; retreated to during raids

- Castle >> final point of retreat if all other defences failed

Image summary: A line drawing map titled Burhs, bastides and fortresses depicting a fortified settlement layout. The settlement consists of a castle area at one end and a long, narrow strip of burgage plots extending southeast. Key features labeled include a keep, castle walls, a river and salt marsh, and various streets. The map includes a legend identifying burgage plots, castle and town walls, streets, parish boundaries, gates, original entrances, bridges, and fords, with a scale bar indicating distances up to 200 meters.

Image summary: A map of Pembroke Town Walls from approximately 1254, showing the layout of the settlement. The map features Pembroke Castle as a central fortified point, with St Mary's Church and St Michael's Church located along the interior of the town walls. The Priory Church of St Nicholas is situated outside the main walled area to the west. A scale bar at the bottom indicates distances in meters.

।Image summary: A black and white historical map depicting a settlement labeled as "Burhs, baslices and fortresses," featuring a dense grid of buildings, roads, and landmarks such as "Pembroke Castle," "St Mary's Church," and "Orange Town." The layout includes a waterfront area with a "Mill Pond," a "Workhouse," and various labeled commons and industrial sites like an "Iron Foundry."

Image summary: A comparative illustration showing two aerial perspectives of fortified settlements, captioned "Burhs, baslices and fortresses." The top image is an artistic reconstruction of a medieval burh, featuring a dense cluster of small buildings enclosed by a continuous outer wall with defensive towers. The bottom image is a modern aerial photograph of a settlement along a river, displaying contemporary housing and road layouts that follow the approximate footprint and contours of the earlier fortified design.

: Image summary: A black and white architectural plan of Pembroke Castle and its surrounding layout. The map details the fortification's structure, including the Inner Ward and Outer Ward, featuring the keep, prison tower, various bastions such as the Monkton Bastion, and the gate house. Surrounding geographical markers include the Pembroke River to the north, Monkton Pill to the west, and nearby infrastructure like the Monkton Bridge, Town Quay, and Westgate Hill.

6.2 Aigues-Mortes and Montpazier — The Bastide

- Military planned town (bastide) in the South of France; dimensions: 600 x 300 metres

- Built in relation to the Crusades as a newly planned fortified town along a river

- Tour de Constance >> the main watchtower; massive fortification to overlook approaching threats

- Moulon >> technical name for the block structure inside the bastide

- Carra (Carré) >> central open square; purpose: to rapidly gather military troops and reach any of the main gates quickly

- Around the Carra >> church, town hall, and commercial functions; the Carra as military-religious-commercial hub

- Walls and watchtowers >> massive enclosing fortifications; total wall perimeter approximately 1 kilometers

Image summary: A photograph of a large, ancient stone fortress characterized by high defensive walls and multiple cylindrical towers under a clear blue sky.

: A diagram of a fortified settlement layout featuring a grid of blocks enclosed by a perimeter wall. The settlement is situated next to a river on the left. A scale bar at the top indicates a distance of 200 meters. The letter A labels a circular feature just outside the northern wall.

Image summary: A photograph of a stone fortification featuring a long crenelated wall and a central gatehouse. The gatehouse is a tall, rectangular stone tower with a pointed archway entrance and protruding defensive structures at the top.

:Figure 6.2 summary: Three images depicting a fortified town. The top image is an aerial photograph of a dense settlement enclosed by a continuous stone wall with defensive towers. Below it are two schematic diagrams showing the town's grid-like layout: a basic line drawing identifying main axes and entrances, and a detailed grey-scale floor plan showing structured blocks of buildings surrounding a central open square.

6.3 Delhi — Eight Forts Through Time

- Delhi built 8 successive fortified cores through its history to protect against Islamic military conquests

- Tughlakabad Fort >> founded by the Tughlaq dynasty, 1321 to 1325; one of the main medieval fortified cores

- Red Fort >> another important fortified core, still a centre of Delhi today

- Total wall length approximately 6 kilometers >> massive investment (compare: Aigues-Mortes is approximately 1 kilometers; Delhi is 6x larger)

- Parapet walls >> cone-shaped bastions, more sophisticated defensive construction than contemporary European equivalents

Image summary: A wide photograph of the ancient stone ruins of a fortification, featuring crumbling walls and several rounded bastion-like structures. The ruins are constructed from rough-hewn stone and are partially overgrown with green shrubs and trees, with a dirt path running along the foreground.

Image summary: This composite graphic consists of three maps related to Delhi. On the left, a regional map titled Eight Cities of Delhi shows various historical city locations marked with numbers across the landscape, including the Yamuna River and the Ridge. In the center, a site layout map of Tughlaqabad Fort displays the fort's fortified perimeter with various gates and a numbered legend identifying features such as the palace area, mosques, tombs, and archaeological remains. On the right, a detailed architectural plan titled Plan of the Palace of Tughlaqabad provides a close-up layout of the palace complex, including its internal structures and courtyards.

: Image summary: A detailed architectural drawing of the fortified city of Delhi in 1858, as published in the Illustrated London News. The image depicts a vast urban landscape enclosed by high defensive walls and bastions, with dense clusters of buildings and courtyards throughout the interior. A river borders the city on the left, and the perimeter is marked by a series of defensive fortifications and gated entrances.

7. Mercantile Urban Motifs in Europe: Copenhagen

- Copenhagen >> combined mercantile and religious motives; city law (Stads Retten / 'Stats Hutton') established in 1194 under the feudal system

- Founded by Bishop Absalom >> Copenhagen literally means 'harbour of the merchants' (Kobmandshavn)

- Walled city with a castle on a small island called Slottsholmen >> built purely for defence against ships from Sweden and Norway (across the Sund)

- Ghent (Belgium) >> shown as comparison: a typical defensive castle-fortress of the same period

- Mercantile infrastructure >> many market squares (fish market, meat market, horse market); docks and quays

- Arsenal >> water-based military complex alongside the mercantile dock system

- Gamelstrand >> the main dock area: long series of quays for loading and unloading ships; shipwharfs for building ships

- Brick construction dominant in all Hanseatic cities >> brick transported along trade routes; same brick materiality visible in Amsterdam, Lubeck, and Gdansk simultaneously

Image summary: A collage of four historical depictions of Copenhagen. The top left is a colorful landscape painting of the city's harbor and skyline filled with sailing ships. The top right is a historical map showing the city's layout and fortifications. The bottom left is a black and white sketch of a stone castle with towers by the water. The bottom right is a technical architectural floor plan or site map showing a fortified structure.

8.1 Amsterdam – From Monasteries to Civic Institutions

- Monastery care functions grew into entirely new larger civic entities embedded in the city fabric

- New institutions that had never existed as separate entities before >> hospitals, orphanages, beguinages

- Key examples in Amsterdam:

- Begijnhof >> large collective complex of houses and gardens for beguines (lay religious women)

- Boys Orphanage on Culverstraat >> one of the first standalone orphanages in a European city

- Elizabeth Gasthuys >> civic hospital; the institution of the hospital was invented in this period

- Form of these new institutions >> not single buildings but big urban complexes: buildings + collective gardens + courtyards accessible to neighbourhood

- Hospital typology >> not yet established; often converted from an existing church (tent/hall typology adapted with small chambers)

- Civic orphanage and civic hospital also shown >> gradual shift from religious orders to secular civic institutions

Image summary: A collage of five images showcasing historic European architecture and urban planning. The top row features three photographs of traditional narrow, gabled brick buildings along waterfronts. The bottom row contains two historical illustrations: one a bird's-eye view map of a fortified city layout with canals and walls, and the other a detailed architectural rendering of a large complex of red-roofed buildings surrounding a central courtyard.

Image summary: A series of maps detailing urban development in Amsterdam across different eras. The left side features a detailed historical line drawing of the city's layout. The right side consists of three comparative diagrams showing the spatial evolution of a specific area: the first represents the beginning of the 15th century, the second shows the area before the Allandie in 1578, and the third shows the area around 1660, with red highlights indicating expansion and development over time.

8.2 Universities — A New Medieval Institution

Image summary: A collection of four historical architectural drawings and maps. The top-left is a detailed engraving of Merton College, showing a cluster of gothic buildings and a chapel. The top-right is a corresponding technical floor plan of the same college, labeling areas like the Chapel, Hall, and various quadrangles. The bottom-left displays an architectural elevation of a classical building with multiple arches, accompanied by a schematic floor plan with Italian annotations. The bottom-right is a colorful historical map of an urban area, featuring a dense network of streets and labeled landmarks such as Christ Church Meadows, Magdalen Coll, and various churches.

- Universities first appear in European cities during the Middle Ages >> a completely new urban institution

- University of Bologna (Archiginnasio) >> one of the oldest universities in Europe; a complex with buildings and collective spaces integrated into the city

- Oxford and Cambridge >> ultimate examples: colleges (not a single building but entire complexes) added one by one to existing medieval cities

- Quadrangles >> the defining spatial unit: large enclosed courtyards (sometimes green, sometimes stone-paved), forming a continuous system through the city

- Balliol College and Trinity College >> built even outside the city walls as the colleges expanded the city

- All Oxford colleges built from local limestone (quarried nearby) >> material continuity across the entire college system

9. The Everyday Urban Fabric: The Medieval House

- Fires a constant danger >> wooden buildings caught fire easily; fires were a recurring force reshaping medieval cities

- Primary structure >> wood up to the roof; large halls with unprescribed (multi-purpose) functions (eat, sleep, live); kitchen more precisely located

- Brick party walls >> introduced specifically to stop fire spreading from house to house; brick replaces wood for parting walls

- Protrusion towards the street >> upper floors overhanging to gain more interior floor space - Result >> cramped, dark medieval street; later a major target of urban criticism; inspiration for wider, lighter streets in subsequent eras

Image summary: A line drawing of a timber-framed building shown in a cutaway perspective. The drawing reveals the internal structural skeleton, including heavy vertical posts, horizontal beams, and a complex system of rafters supporting a steeply pitched roof.

Image summary: A technical line drawing of a building's structural frame, showing a two-story rectangular base topped with a steeply pitched gabled roof. The skeleton consists of vertical posts, horizontal beams for the floors and ceiling, and diagonal braces at the corners for structural support.

Image summary: A technical line drawing of a timber-frame structure, featuring numbered labels (1 through 16) identifying various architectural components across three main sections marked A, B, and C. The drawing illustrates the skeletal construction of a building, including a peaked roof system (A), an upper floor or platform (B), and a supporting base framework (C).

Image summary: A technical line drawing of a building's timber frame structure, showing a vertical cross-section of the supporting beams. The frame consists of vertical side posts and three horizontal floor beams, with diagonal knee braces providing support at the junction of the floors and walls. The structure is capped with a steeply pitched gabled roof supported by diagonal rafters and horizontal collar beams.

Image summary: A photograph of a narrow street lined with historic European buildings. The central focus is a tall, narrow structure featuring a combination of brickwork and dark timber framing with multiple windows across several stories, situated next to another brick building with a distinctive stepped gable roof.

Image summary: A technical line drawing of a structural frame for a building, featuring a rectangular base with vertical supports and three horizontal cross-beams, topped by a peaked, triangular roof structure reinforced with two horizontal collar ties.

Wooden timber-framed house.

Wooden timber-framed house with brick side walls.

House with brick walls.

10. The City-State

10.1 Siena — Contrade and Collective Governance

- Siena originally composed of many small independent settlements, each with own church and square >> Contrade

- Contrade began collaborating first for defence >> federated city-state; surrounded by a common defensive wall

- Urban design project >> Piazza del Campo: a huge public space celebrating the union of the contrade; fan-shaped (shell-shaped), sloping down to the Palazzo Pubblico

- Urban design rules for the Piazza del Campo:

- Facade height, materiality, and rhythm prescribed for all buildings fronting the piazza

- Streets leading to the piazza: curvilinear (not straight), with defined minimum width (no overbuilding)

- Palazzo Pubblico >> seat of public governance; large campanile (tower) from which the city was governed

- Fontegaia >> fountain at the highest point of the Piazza del Campo; celebrates collaborative engineering achievement of bringing fresh water to the city centre

- Palio >> horse race held twice yearly (July and August) on the Piazza del Campo: celebrates the collaboration of Contrade while each neighbourhood asserts its own identity

Image summary: A collage of four views of Siena, Italy. The top left is a high-contrast black and white figure-ground map emphasizing the dense urban fabric surrounding the Campo square. The top right is a historical line drawing showing a panoramic vista of the city's skyline and hilly surroundings. The bottom left is a detailed topographical city map labeled SIENA, showing the street layout and surrounding terrain. The bottom right consists of two photographs: the top shows the Campo square packed with a massive crowd of people, and the bottom shows the same square from an elevated angle, highlighting the surrounding buildings and the central tower.

10.2 Florence — Layered Densification

- Defence and religion as primary drivers; city governed as a fully independent city-state

- Not a completely new urban design project >> progressive densification of the existing Roman grid structure

- Casa Torre >> the densification typology: tall vertical towers added within the old Roman grid, which was originally designed for low buildings; a new form of vertical urbanism in the medieval city

Image summary: A composite of five visual representations documenting the urban evolution and architecture of Florence, Italy. The top left shows a cross-sectional architectural drawing of a fortified building. The top right is an aerial photograph of the dense urban fabric of Florence. The middle left is a schematic street plan with numbered markers. The middle right is a historical panoramic engraving of the walled city. The bottom image is an 18th-century cartographic map titled "Planta della Citta di Firenze," dated 1754, which highlights public spaces and the Arno River winding through the city's layout.

11. Zahringer Cities

- Zahringer dynasty (House of Zahringen, based near Freiburg im Breisgau) >> founded planned towns both north and south of the Schwarzwald (Black Forest); also across what is now Switzerland

- Best Swiss example >> Berne (Bern); strategically located on a river loop

- Key feature >> very wide Marktgasse (market street), one or two of them per city; fresh water channel literally running down the middle of the Marktgasse

- Zahringer cities had almost no squares; instead huge Marktgassen for intensive trade

- Marktgasse reduced over time >> buildings progressively overbuilt the edges (from the 12th through the 18th century), adding approximately 5 m on each side; total reduction of approximately 10 m in width

- Today Bern's Marktgasse still looks wide, but was originally similar 10 m wider; the overbuilt structures form Bern's famous Lauben (arcades), which can still be walked under today

Image summary: A black and white architectural site plan or urban map showing a densely packed residential area with rows of narrow plot divisions. The neighborhood is bounded by curving roads and a river or canal at the top, with buildings arranged in concentric, sweeping arcs following the layout of the surrounding streets.

: Image summary: A black and white historical illustration depicting a panoramic landscape of a town with rows of buildings, gardens, and a river flowing in the foreground. The town is nestled at the foot of a large, sloping mountain, with a banner containing Latin text "ANNO DOMINI" visible at the top right.

Image summary: A line drawing of a multi-unit residential building complex showing the transition from a structural frame on the left to completed units with gabled roofs and dormer windows on the right. Dimensions are noted on the side and front, indicating a building height of 30 feet (9.6 meters) and a total length of 50 feet (17.60 meters) consisting of three 30-foot segments.

Image summary: A line drawing of an architectural perspective showing a row of connected houses. The right side shows completed facades with gabled roofs and dormer windows, while the left side is a skeletal structural frame. Dimensions are noted along the base, including markings of 30 feet, 60 feet (17.50m), and 30 feet.

Image summary: An isometric line drawing of a row of attached multi-story buildings. The drawing includes dimension lines indicating a width of 60 feet (17.60 meters) and a height of 40 feet (11.70 meters).

: Image summary: An architectural line drawing depicting a multi-story residential building with gabled roofs and dormer windows. The sketch includes dimensional labels, noting a length of 60 feet (18.3 meters) along the base and a height label of 50 feet (15.2 meters).

12. Conclusion

- Medieval city shaped by three overlapping logics >> defence (burhs, bastides, fortresses), religion (cathedrals, monasteries), and commerce (Hanseatic League, market infrastructure)

- Cities were palimpsests >> layering Roman, Islamic, Norman, and Gothic strata simultaneously

- The monastery was the prototype city of the period >> rationally planned with fully integrated urban functions

- New institutions (hospitals, orphanages, universities) entered the city as large complex urban entities — not single buildings

- Each medieval city unique in plan, function, and social structure >> no single universal model; the opposite of Roman standardisation

1.05 — Between Ideal and Laboratory: Of European Renaissance Principles and the Laws of the Indies

1. Context ca. 1500

- Europe fragmented into city-states and monarchies, many wars (e.g. 100 Years' War 1337 to 1453, French versus English) >> shaped fortification design

- Explorations and colonisations underway in the Americas (Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan) >> simultaneous missions (evangelisation) and trade (metals, spices, silk, coffee) over global distances

- Trade routes again the mechanism through which knowledge about cities was transmitted globally

।Image summary: A world map illustrating global trade routes and territorial control during the colonial era. Red lines represent Spanish trade routes, while blue lines represent Portuguese routes, showing a network connecting Europe, Africa, the Americas, and Asia. The map differentiates territorial holdings by color: Spanish territory in reddish-orange and Portuguese territory in light yellow. A legend identifies these routes, territories, and markers for battles and commodities.

2. Humanist Italy: Of Public Works and Private Palaces

2.1 The Rinascimento

- Rinascimento (re-birth) >> term introduced by Giorgio Vasari in the 16th century; rediscovery of classical antiquity (14th–17th century)

- Vitruvius rediscovered >> manuscripts found in monastery libraries; scholars from Constantinople (fleeing the Ottoman conquest) brought Greek knowledge to Italy

- Apollo Belvedere rediscovered ca. 1489 >> sparked renewed study of classical sculpture

- >> theory of the autonomous secular state, governed rationally by civic servants; politics of reason

- Book printing (goo-ten-berg) >> knowledge spread rapidly at scale — treatises, Bibles, and ideas about ideal cities distributed widely and fast

2.2 Renaissance Urban Design Principles: Pienza

- Pienza >> small medieval town; Pope Pius 2 (the pope was born there) commissioned Bernardo Rossellino in 1459 to transform it into a Renaissance city

- Rossellino was a pupil of Leon Battista Alberti; worked from Alberti's three key principles (De re aedificatoria):

- Spatial unity: coherent, consistent space; Limitation of space: clearly defined, not flowing; Measured order: geometry, proportion, rhythm, symmetry

- Method >> completing existing buildings, adding new ones, creating defined space in front of the cathedral (Piazza Pio 2), adding a connecting grid, giving new facades with shared rhythm

- Result >> visually controlled square space despite an irregular plan; urban design becomes a matter of control in the Renaissance

Image summary: A four-panel collage showing different views of an old European town's urban layout. The top left is a high-angle photograph of a church facade facing a small plaza surrounded by buildings with terracotta roofs. The top right is an aerial photograph of a dense cluster of similar terracotta-roofed buildings. The bottom left is a detailed line drawing mapping out a specific neighborhood's building footprints. The bottom right is a larger urban map labeling the Murello, Ciglio, and Santo Quarters, with markers for a Cathedral and the Bishop's Palace, and directional indicators pointing toward Montepulciano, Castelnuovo, Montechiello, and San Vito.

2.3 London — Royal Naval College (Christopher Wren, 1696)

- Started from the Queen's House designed by Inigo Jones (early 17th century)

- Wren built a grand ensemble around it >> spatial unity, limitation of space, measured order; symmetry, rhythm, proportion; references to Greek classical elements

Image summary: A historical architectural site plan of Greenwich Hospital, showing the layout of buildings and grounds along the river. The diagram identifies various structures, gardens, and pathways, including a central elliptical area and a surrounding perimeter of buildings.

Image summary: A line drawing architectural plan of the Royal Hospital Greenwich, presented as a view from the Thames. The drawing depicts a symmetrical complex of grand buildings arranged around central courtyards and open plazas, leading toward a central structure in the distance.

2.4 A New Scale: The Carriage

- Jump in scale from the medieval city >> the carriage becomes the main element of transport; longer, wider, straighter roads required

- Verona >> Corso Cavour: wider streets lined with Palazzos: base (rusticated) + piano nobile + elaborate cornice; perspective along the street becomes a design concern

- Brunelleschi >> invented linear perspective: how to represent the new ordered city on paper (e.g. Baptistery in Florence)

- Sebastiano Serlio (Tutte l'opere d'Architettura et Prospettiva, 1537) >> three stage-set types as city ideals:

- Scena comica: curvilinear irregular streets — the ordinary medieval city (least valued)

- Scena satirica: ruinous city reclaimed by nature

- Scena tragica: perfectly straight street with central perspective — the Renaissance ideal city (most valued)

: A side-by-side comparison of a photograph and three historical etchings of street scenes in Verona. The black and white photograph on the left shows a narrow street called Corso Campione with a tram and horse-drawn carriage. To the right are three aligned illustrative panels labeled 'scena comica', 'scena satirica', and 'scena tragica', depicting architectural settings and a wooded area used as theatrical backdrops.

Image summary: A black and white historical map of a city, likely Verona, Italy, featuring the Adige River curving through the urban center. A prominent red straight line is drawn diagonally across the map from the southwest to the northeast, intersecting the river and city streets.

Image summary: A photograph of a grand, neoclassical palatial building facade. The structure features three main levels: a rusticated ground floor with a central three-arched portico and barred windows, a middle floor with rectangular windows, and an upper floor characterized by arched windows separated by columns. The roofline is crowned by a balustrade supporting a row of eight classical statues.

2.5 Firenze — City as Symbol of the State

Image summary: A three-part composite showing the architecture of Florence, Italy. The left image is a photograph of the Palazzo Vecchio and the Loggia dei Priori; the middle image is a panoramic photograph of the city skyline featuring the Duomo (Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore) and its dome against a mountain backdrop; the right image is a technical line drawing showing a cross-section and structural detail of the cathedral's dome.

Image summary: A side-by-side comparison consisting of a grayscale aerial photograph of a dense city center on the left and a detailed architectural 3D diagram on the right. The diagram highlights a specific path of buildings and corridors in Florence, Italy, labeling key landmarks including Palazzo Vecchio, the Uffizi Gallery, Ponte Vecchio, and the Boboli Gardens, tracing a connection through the city's historic structures.

Image summary: This architectural drawing presents a series of plans and a 3D axonometric view of a historical building complex. The left side displays detailed floor plans showing room layouts and structural divisions. The center features a simplified site map with shaded blocks and dated notations ranging from 1209 to 1343, alongside smaller detail plans. The right side provides a three-dimensional perspective rendering of the multi-story building, featuring a prominent tower and a complex roofline.

- Medici family (bankers and traders) >> used public works to symbolise the importance of Florence

- Palazzo Vecchio >> rusticated facade (almost like a fortress); public space created around it; bifurcated windows referencing classical antiquity

- Uffizi >> office building designed by Giorgio Vasari; offices for those governing the city-state; classical elements (loggia, sculpture, piano nobile with segmented and triangular window crowns)

- Palazzo Vecchio + Uffizi merged into one project >> rulers could move unseen from their residence (Palazzo Pitti) to the seat of government (Palazzo Vecchio) via corridors over the Ponte Vecchio (with its shops along the Arno River)

2.6 The Palazzo — New Urban Typology

- Tripartite facade >> rusticated plinth (base), piano nobile (body, with elaborately crowned windows), cornice with brackets (top)

- Facade becomes smoother and more noble with each higher floor; appears as a perfect cube — achieved by slightly tilting/cantilevering the wall toward the street to correct for perspective

- Based on the Roman Domus typology >> impluvium court (pluvium courtyard) at centre; rooms arranged in enfilada (one leading to the next)

- Interior courtyard references classical antiquity (Corinthian columns, bifurcated windows); benches at the street facade contribute to the public domain

- Key Florentine examples:

- Palazzo Medici Riccardi >> by Michelozzo de Bartolomeo; commissioned by Cosimo de' Medici

- Palazzo Strozzi >> same tripartite logic; Cortile with pluvium

- Palazzo Rucellai >> by Alberti/Rossellino in Florence

- Palazzo Farnese in Rome >> by Michelangelo and Antonio da Sangallo; same three-part division

- Interior of palazzos as 'public realm' for female citizens >> contemporary scholarship describes these interior spaces as spaces of empowerment for women in the Renaissance city (knowledge exchange, education, social life)

Image summary: A photograph of a multi-story stone palace featuring a rustic ground floor with heavy, textured masonry and arched doorways. The upper levels exhibit a smoother stone finish with rows of arched windows and a decorative cornice along the roofline.

Image summary: A painting depicting two separate groups of people in an indoor setting. In the foreground, four figures in robes stand together. In the background, two figures embrace at the top of a staircase leading to a doorway.

Image summary: A black and white architectural floor plan of a building featuring a central square courtyard surrounded by rooms and hallways. The layout includes a spiral staircase on the right side and several smaller rooms divided by thick walls, with a scale bar at the bottom indicating measurements up to 30 units.

: A painting depicting a domestic scene with four women and an infant. In the center, one woman sits holding a baby, while another woman kneels beside her. To the right, a woman leans over to pour liquid from a vessel. A fourth woman stands on the left, observing the group. Above them is a stone frieze featuring a series of carved figures, and the setting includes paneled walls and a stone bench.

Image summary: A set of three architectural drawings labeled A, B, and C. Drawing A shows a section and a plan looking up of a crowning cornice. Drawing B depicts the full facade of a building facing a piazza, featuring multiple stories of arched windows and a central entrance. Drawing C provides a detailed view of the entrance, showing an arched doorway flanked by windows and topped with a decorative pediment.

Image summary: A black and white architectural line drawing of a ground plan featuring a central open square labeled CORTILE, surrounded by a network of interconnected rooms and thick walls.

Image summary: An architectural line drawing of an entrance vestibule, featuring a high, vaulted ceiling with recessed rectangular panels and a central corridor lined with rows of seating leading toward a distant archway.

: Image summary: A black and white architectural line drawing of a first floor plan, featuring a central rectangular open courtyard surrounded by a series of connected rooms and corridors.

Image summary: A black and white architectural line drawing showing the elevation of a multi-story building. The structure features a complex facade with various arched openings, niches containing figures, and decorative panels. To the right is a lower, single-story wing with three large arches. A scale bar is included at the bottom of the drawing.

: Image summary: A historical landscape illustration of a large estate titled BELVEDER CON PITTI. The image depicts a grand palatial building in the foreground with a symmetrical formal garden extending behind it up a sloped hill. The hillside is organized into structured terraces and rows of vegetation, leading upward to a fortified structure with walls and a tower at the summit.

PALAZZO FARNES:ROME

Figure E summary: A black and white architectural drawing depicting the Cortile from the arcade. The perspective view shows a vaulted arcade corridor with a series of pillars on the right, opening into a courtyard surrounded by a multi-story building with classical windows and architectural detailing.

3. The Fortified City: The Norms and Forms of Warfare

- Cannon invented in the 14th century and perfected in the Renaissance >> old vertical walls no longer sufficient; the distance between the enemy and the city had to be enlarged - Bastion systems >> no longer simple walls; elaborate systems of angled bastions (from which defenders could shoot) combined with moats, nested one inside the other

- Sébastien le Prêtre de Vauban >> perfected the nested bastion system (Vauban fortifications) across Middle Europe; the idea: multiple layers of bastions and moats so an attacker must cross 100 to 150 m of obstacles to reach the citadel

- Lille >> multiple nested bastions and moats around the citadel; bastionated city plan still visible

- Turin >> enormous citadel presence; city no longer able to expand because fortifications cost too much and blocked growth; density increased until all open spaces inside were filled

- Copenhagen >> Kastellet (Castellate): still-visible citadel with nested bastions from this period; military barracks still present

- Zurich >> remnants of bastionated systems still visible along the Limmat

Image summary: A collage of four historical military engineering drawings and maps depicting star forts and fortified city layouts. The top-left image is a black and white engraving of a bastion fort's geometric walls. The top-center image is a colorful map of a walled city surrounded by green landscape. The top-right image is a detailed technical plan of a fortification with labeled sections. The bottom-left image is a detailed architectural diagram of a fort with labeled French military terms such as Redoute, Bastion, and Cavalier. The bottom-right image is a plan of a star fort featuring yellow-shaded fortifications.

4. The Ideal City: Of Social Reforms and Works of Art

4.1 Literary and Philosophical Visions

- Thomas More (Utopia) >> humanist vision; importance of knowledge, health, hospitals and nursing

- Tommaso Campanella (Civitas Solis) >> monk from Calabria; city where people no longer have to work

- Johann Valentin Andreae (Christianopolis, 1619) >> German theologian; everyone has the same rights; repetitive uniform dwelling cells; church at centre; city moats also used for fishing/food production

Image summary: Two side-by-side black and white historical illustrations. The left illustration is a symmetrical, bird's-eye view of a fortified city labeled CHRISTIANOPOLIS, featuring a central domed building and walls enclosing organized blocks of structures. The right illustration, captioned VTOFIAE INSVLAE FIGVRA, depicts a crescent-shaped island containing various buildings and towers, with sailing ships in the surrounding water.

IDEA REIPVBLICE PHILO SOPHICE

4.2 Visual Representations: Three Ideal City Panels

- Three painted panels (~2m wide x 60 to 70 centimeters high) attributed to Francesco di Giorgio Martini:

- Palazzo Ducale, Urbino >> central perspective, Baptisterium at centre + Palazzos; religion as the core of the ideal city

- >> harbour at centre; commerce as primary value; same strict measured proportions

- Baltimore >> triumphal arch (military), Colosseum (leisure), Baptisterium (religion) — all three combined

Image summary: A series of three architectural renderings depicting idealized classical city squares. The top image shows a wide plaza featuring a central circular temple with a domed roof and a colonnaded porch, flanked by multi-story rectangular buildings. The middle image provides a perspective view from beneath a covered portico with large fluted columns, looking out across a paved square toward distant ships in a harbor. The bottom image displays a large open plaza containing a variety of classical structures, including a circular amphitheater, a triumphal arch, a domed temple, and several tall buildings, with small figures and a central fountain providing a sense of scale.

4.3 Alberti's Key Principles for the Ideal City

- House is a miniature city; individual buildings subordinate to the whole

- Round or circular plan surrounded by stellar fortifications

- Urban plan large enough to allow for expansion; good siting, efficient water supply, careful regard for health

- Streets laid out 'in the manner of rivers' — undulating pattern

- Number of piazzas with set proportions for squares and surrounding building heights; moderation in size and decoration

4.4 Architects' Visions

Image summary: A collage of three architectural studies. The top left is a geometric line drawing of a circular floor plan with radiating lines and labels. The top center is a detailed architectural elevation sketch of a domed building with two flanking towers. The top right is a similar architectural sketch showing the exterior facade of a multi-tiered classical building. The bottom half of the collage features a physical white architectural scale model of a complex building layout containing courtyards, columns, and blue-tinted water features.

- Antonio di Pietro Avelino (Filarete) >> designed Sforzinda for the Duke of Milan after plague; round city with central public space and secondary public spaces along radial routes to gates; public building for education ('House of Vice and Virtue') at centre

- Vitruvius >> winds principle: streets laid out between the main winds (climatological consideration); also typology (Domus), engineering (water supply), materiality

- Leonardo da Vinci (1484–1485) >> Duke Ludovico Sforza asked him to plan 10 new cities after plague devastated Milan; two principles: (1) low density with big public spaces and wide streets, (2) complete underground city for all goods traffic (keeping the surface clean)

4.5 Vincenzo Scamozzi and Realised Ideal Cities

- Vincenzo Scamozzi (L'idea della Architettura universale) >> fortified city applicable universally; spacious public spaces for citizens and military; ideal typologies for buildings

- Palmanova (near Venice, not Sicily) >> garrison town; nine-sided polygon; radial streets from bastions to centre; hexagonal central public space with church and governing buildings; secondary level of public spaces at intermediate ring

- Grammichele >> main public square + secondary public squares; radial streets to edges for rapid military access; church and town hall along main square

Image summary: A collage of five architectural layouts and aerial views showing a star-shaped city plan centered on a hexagonal plaza. The images include a technical line drawing, two color-coded diagrams with red highlights on a gold background and yellow highlights on a map, and two modern satellite photographs showing the dense urban grid radiating from the central hexagon.

5. Laws of the Indies: The Quest for New Urban

Territories

- Signed in 1573 by Philip 2 of Spain

- Purpose >> guide establishment of presidios (military), missions, and pueblos (civilian) in Spanish colonies

- 148 ordinances >> codified the city planning process; heavily based on Vitruvius and Alberti - Key provisions:

- Elevated healthy location, fortification capacity, fertile soil, water, fuel, timber

- 'All buildings of one type for the sake of the beauty of the town'

- Large commons/public spaces reserved for future expansion

- Urban form >> gridiron plan, Plaza Mayor with main church + governance + military buildings, straight thoroughfares

- Applied in Middle and South America as an instrument of colonial governance and evangelisation

Image summary: A hand-drawn historical grid or table on aged paper, consisting of numerous rows and columns filled with handwritten cursive text in ink. The entries appear to be a list of names or records, organized into a structured layout of rectangular cells.

Hanoi gue manifesta d'épargne de Hanoi, q'hao d'Gali, Finan de Sanoy, à las Aridad y de Buenos Aires. Athis de

5.1 Buenos Aires (Spanish Colonial Model)

- 'Planted' city (~1580) >> Plaza Mayor (Plaza de la Victoria) at centre; Church prominent; strict gridiron system according to Laws of the Indies

- Civilian town; also important for trade; basic plan as instrument of evangelisation and territorial control

: Figure 5.1 summary: Two side-by-side historical maps of Buenos Aires illustrating urban growth. The left map is a hand-drawn plan from 1712 showing a small, fortified settlement centered around a star-shaped fort with a modest grid of blocks and coastal features. The right map is a more detailed, larger-scale municipal plan showing a significantly expanded city with an extensive, dense grid of blocks covering a much larger area of land bordering the water.

5.2 Candelaria (Jesuit Mission)

- Part of the Society of Jesus mission network along the Paraguay and Uruguay rivers

- Very simple, orderly, measured plan; Church at centre; uniform architecture for approximately 7000 inhabitants; 1793 original drawings survive

Image summary: A black and white map of a coastal region featuring numerous labeled points of interest, such as Santa Maria de Fe, San Luis, and San Miguel, distributed across the land. A small inset map in the bottom left indicates the geographic location within South America. A single point on the map is highlighted with a red circle.

।Image summary: A two-part historical architectural drawing. The top section contains six identical perspective sketches of long, single-story buildings with red tiled roofs and colonnaded porches, arranged in two columns of three. The bottom section is a larger, single drawing depicting a building complex with a prominent central tower, an arched entryway, and a surrounding wall.

Image summary: A black and white architectural floor plan showing a series of repetitive room layouts and corridors. The top half consists of rows of small, uniform rectangular units. The bottom half features larger, specifically numbered rooms, including rooms 21, 22, and 23, and a wide open rectangular courtyard area.

5.3 Salvador de Bahia (Portuguese Colonial Model)

Image summary: A collage of four historical maps and sketches depicting coastal fortifications and cities. The top-left sketch shows a fortified settlement on a peninsula surrounded by water. The top-right illustration is a detailed map of a densely packed city with numerous buildings and ships anchored in the harbor. The bottom-left drawing shows a coastal town situated on a narrow strip of land. The bottom-right sketch provides a panoramic view of a city skyline along a shoreline, accompanied by handwritten notes below the drawing.

(not Spanish)

- Long-time capital of Brazil; two-part city: higher city (main public buildings, churches, governance) + lower city (commerce and trade)

- Reproduces the structure of Lisbon (higher/lower city); after Lisbon burned, both cities were rebuilt

- Trade included both goods and slaves; Portuguese colonial model also visible in Luanda (Angola) with same higher/lower city structure

TREINTOS PIERLOS DE MISIONES JESLITICO-GUARANES

-NOT following Laws of the Indies >> Portuguese colonial logic

6. Conclusion

- Three key Renaissance urban transformations >> (1) spatial unity/measured order (Pienza, palazzos), (2) new carriage scale (straight wide roads), (3) state power symbolised architecturally (Palazzo Vecchio, Uffizi)

- The ideal city pursued both in theory (Alberti, Filarete, da Vinci, Scamozzi) and in practice (Palmanova, Laws of the Indies cities)

- Colonisation as urban design >> planning as instrument of conquest, evangelisation, and territorial governance

- The grid — inherited from Rome and the Greeks — codified and globalised through the Laws of the Indies

1.06 — Of Absolutism and Enlightenment: The Norms and Forms of the Baroque City

- Protestant Reformation (1517 to 1648) >> Martin Luther's 95 Theses; Zwingli reforming in Switzerland; Counter-Reformation = Catholic response

- Iconoclasm (Bildersturm) >> Reformers destroyed religious images from churches; for example Zurich 1523, Geneva, Copenhagen, Münster — paintings, statues, and decorations physically removed or burned

- 30 Years' War (1618 to 1648) >> religious-ideological warfare across Europe

- Baroque emerged first in Catholic areas (Rome, 16th century); Protestant areas initially had a sober, image-free attitude to architecture

- Colonial empires >> Spain, Portugal, France, Britain, Dutch expanding globally; accumulation of enormous financial and material resources in European capitals

2. Architecture as Project for the City

2.1 Definition of Baroque Urban Design

- Barocco = originally 'queer, absurd': derogatory term for degenerated Renaissance; started in Rome 16th c., in the Catholic world

- Key characteristics:

- (a) Exclusive to power elites: Popes, Jesuits, Nobility, Kings; Louis 14: 'L'État c'est moi' / 'La ville c'est moi'

- (b) Grand Gesture: grandeur and previously unknown scale introduced into urban design

- (c) Urban is 'on stage': ruling powers use the city to display themselves; architects mirror patron's grandeur

- (d) New concept of 'urban project': one precisely located architectural intervention that can transform the entire city

2.2 Rome: San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (Borromini)

- Located at a street crossing with 4 fountains (one on each corner) >> the church is the 4th building that completes the set

- Convex and concave facade >> overly grand for a relatively small building; facade with two parts moving in and out, creating intense relation to the public space

- Key idea >> one urban project transforms the city radically: by changing this singular crossing, you change a much larger part of the city

Image summary: A black and white architectural floor plan of S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane and its surrounding complex. The layout includes an oval-shaped church labeled S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, an adjacent rectangular Cloister, and a Refectory with a dormitory and library above. The complex is bordered by Strada Felice to the west and Strada Pia to the south. A fountain is marked at the southwest corner. The image includes a scale bar indicating 20 meters or 60 feet.

Image summary: A low-angle photograph looking straight up at the ornate, white vaulted ceiling and central dome of a classical building, featuring intricate plasterwork, circular moldings, and recessed panels with gold and blue decorative accents.

Image summary: An architectural sketch depicting a birds-eye plan of a city intersection where four ornate, classically styled buildings are positioned at the corners of a crossing. Handwritten labels along the intersecting streets identify the locations, including "via dei fiori" and "via della fortuna".

Image summary: A photograph of a multi-story, light-colored stone Baroque building, likely a church, situated at a city street corner. The architecture features an ornate facade with classical columns, arched entrances, and a decorative pediment topped with a small tower. A crosswalk and several pedestrians are visible on the street in the foreground.

2.3 Rome: Sant'Agnese in Agone (Piazza Navona, Borromini)

- Piazza Navona was previously a Roman stadium space >> transformed in the middle of the 17th century

- Santa Agnese in Agone church introduced; recessed into the public space to create centrality

- Two fountains and one obelisk added by Borromini >> creating strong visual centrality in the public space

Image summary: An architectural floor plan in black and white demonstrating a symmetrical layout of interconnected rooms and halls. The center of the plan features a large circular rotunda with radiating lines, flanked by rectangular rooms and smaller circular or octagonal spaces. A wide entrance area is located at the bottom center, leading into the complex.

Image summary: This detailed black and white etching depicts the Piazza Navona in Rome, featuring the prominent Church of Sant'Agnese in Agone with its large dome and twin towers on the right. In the center of the spacious, paved square stands the Fountain of the Four Rivers, topped by an obelisk, while a smaller fountain is visible in the foreground. Numerous small figures of people are scattered throughout the square, and the scene is framed by multi-story buildings on either side under a cloudy sky.

2.4 Rome: Piazza del Campidoglio (Michelangelo)

- Originally a derelict late-medieval space with Palazzo dei Senatori and Palazzo dei Conservatori (late 15th century)

- Michelangelo's intervention (commissioned by a Pope, late 16th century):

- New facade for Palazzo dei Senatori: two-part division (base + crowned corpus) with bell tower marking the central axis

- New facade for Palazzo dei Conservatori: symmetrical, rhythmical; gallery at base, body, adorned cornice

- Palazzo Nuovo: completely new building mirroring the Palazzo dei Conservatori to close the space

- New access stair: creates the beginning of a spatial sequence of discovery

- Elliptical pavement: radiates out to bind all elements (old + renovated + new) into one experience

- Statue of Marcus Aurelius placed in the Centre (unusual: normally statues placed against a background) >> discovered as part of the spatial sequence approaching from the stair

- Result: one of the defining examples of an urban project as spatial sequence — early Baroque

Image summary: A collage of architectural studies and photographs of the Capitoline Museums and Piazza del Campidoglio in Rome. The top section contains three technical drawings: a site plan, a detailed floor plan showing the geometry of the square and surrounding buildings, and an elevation drawing paired with a bird's-eye view. The bottom section features three photographs: a frontal view of the palace facade with a central equestrian statue, a wide shot of the elliptical paved piazza, and a perspective view of the square's entrance flanked by sculptures.

3. The Territorial City: Expanding the Urban Confines

3.1 Key Shift from Renaissance to Baroque

- Renaissance >> closed, limited, centred structures; Baroque >> open systems, axes dominating both city and countryside

- Focus shifts to territorial network >> urbanism extends beyond city borders, permanently implying political/religious power

- Squares become nodal points; streets become major territorial axes; buildings, gardens, squares no longer autonomous

3.2 Pope Sixtus 5 (1585 to 1590): Rome

Image summary: A side-by-side comparison of two historical maps of Rome. The left image is a schematic map showing key landmarks including S. Lorenzo, S. Croce in Gerusalemme, Colosseum, Porta Pia, Piazza del Popolo, and S. Pietro, with lines indicating executed plans (piano eseguito) and project plans (piano di progetto). The right image is a stylized historical illustration mapping various religious and civic sites, such as T. S. Paul, T. S. Croce, Columna Trajan, and T. S. Maria, connected by intersecting lines.

Image summary: A black and white sketch of a historic European city street featuring a large, ornate Baroque-style church as the central subject. The church has a decorative facade and domes, situated next to other multi-story buildings. The foreground and street are populated with various pedestrians, horses, and a carriage, depicting a busy urban scene.

Image summary: A historical line drawing depicting a bird's-eye view of a town or city settlement. The scene features several large multi-story buildings, including a church with a tall spire, and a network of paths and roads populated by small figures of people walking and gathering throughout the landscape.

- Rome to become the 'Civitas Dei' (City of God) >> pilgrims should be able to visit all main churches in 1 to 2 days

- Strategy: a new network of straight streets connecting the main churches (San Pietro, Santa Maria Maggiore, San Giovanni Laterano, and others)

- Strada Felice >> key new axis starting at Piazza del Popolo, passing through the Quattro Fontane, connecting religious centres

- Streets irrespective of existing fabric and topography >> the religious logic supersedes topographical logic

- Obelisks placed at religious centres to mark the network with even greater gravity

- Axes reach beyond the old city walls into the territory >> the grandeur of religious Rome exceeds its built boundary

4. The City as Symbol of Absolutism: Squares, Boulevards, and Ordonnances

4.1 The Ideological System

- Centralisation of political power; the city as direct representation of dominant ideologies - Continuity and extension: the city grows along its axes; symbolic quality of rising centralising power

-Only a 5-year reign, but everlasting impact; worked with architect Domenico Fontana-Wanted

4.2 Paris Under Henri 4

Image summary: A collage of six historical and modern visual representations of urban planning in Paris, featuring the Place Vendôme and surrounding areas. The collection includes two modern aerial photographs showing a square and a plaza, two detailed architectural engravings of city squares and bridges, one historical map with handwritten annotations, and one high-contrast black and white urban layout map.

- New public spaces (Places Royales) literally cut as incisions into the existing urban fabric — buildings demolished to create them

- Place des Vosges >> first Place Royale; commissioned by Henri 4; realised by Claude Chastillon in 1612 (opening ceremony depicted)

- Characteristics of the Places Royales:

- Strict geometrical figures (square, triangular, chamfered)

- Military purposes: the king could rapidly gather troops; equestrian statue of king at centre

- Extremely repetitive uniform building facades (rhythm, form, materiality all pre-determined)

- Materiality >> locally sourced limestone ('Roscal Sierra' in French); visible in orange on contemporary maps of Paris

- Place Vendome >> square with chamfered/angled corners; obelisk at centre; streets leading to it also strictly codified (Ordonnances)

- Place Dauphine >> triangular shape; slightly less uniform than other Places Royales

- Cours de la Reine >> commissioned by Maria de' Medici in 1616; three-lane carriageway; first Boulevard; for carriages of the aristocracy and nobility

Pierre Le Muet's treatise (Maniere de Bien Bastir pour toutes sortes de personnes) >> codified these ordonnances in treatise form

- Also: Plaza Mayor in Madrid (Juan de Herrera) >> same expression of nobility power in city

5. London Squares: 1600 to 1800

- Garden Squares >> not religious but economic power; expression of British nobility's land development strategy

- London context: noble estates (manor house + agricultural land + church + common pastures) at the outskirts

- Main estates: Portland Estate, Grosvenor Estate, Bedford Estate (around Regent's Park area)

- Development model >> ordinary approach: build only along roads; Garden Square approach: develop entire estate with a mix of dense fabric + open squares

- Bloomsbury Square >> surrounded by dense urban fabric; typical square as open space within developed estate

- Grosvenor Square >> hierarchy: most prominent houses face the square; secondary streets much smaller and darker

- Bedford Square >> houses around it; school of architecture also located there

- Squares were not public >> fenced; keys held only by the people living around them — private/collective, not public

- Result: social hierarchy reinstalled through urban design in London; economic power expressed as urban form

Image summary: A side-by-side comparison of two historical maps of the same area. The left map is a black-and-white sketch depicting rural landscapes with scattered trees, fields, and a few small buildings. The right map is a more formal, colored historical plan showing a structured urban development with a grid of streets, organized blocks, and a central oval feature, situated adjacent to Hyde Park.

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6. Cities of Parts and Whole: Rome and Saint Petersburg

6.1 Apparent Paradox in Baroque

Urbanism

-Baroque = partial plans (very precise urban projects) + desire for totality and expansion

-Urban projects capable of: (a) giving shape to surrounding development, (b) dynamic movement/experience, (c) possible expansion

6.2 Saint Petersburg (Founded 1703, Peter the Great)

-New capital of Russia along the Neva River; plan reminds of Amsterdam (canals system)

Image summary: A collage featuring three perspectives of Saint Petersburg, Russia. The top left is a black and white architectural plan labeling the University, Academy of Sciences, Senate Square, Admiralty, Palace Square, and the General Staff Building. The top right is an aerial photograph of the expansive Palace Square. The bottom is a historical painting depicting a waterfront scene with buildings, a bridge with pedestrians and carriages, and boats on the water.

- Goal: at pair with other European capitals culturally

- Prestigious palaces by Italian architects:

- Menshikov Palace >> by Italian architect Giovanni Maria Fontana (for a member of Peter's court)

- Winter Palace >> official Romanov residence by Italian architect Bartolomeo Rastrelli; grandeur of Rome brought to St. Petersburg

: Image summary: A collage of six images showing architectural and urban planning views of Rome. The collection includes a historical painting of a domed basilica, three black-and-white urban maps or architectural plans depicting city layouts and plazas including Piazza del Popolo, and two aerial photographs showing large-scale urban vistas, one of a city district and another of St. Peter's Square and the Vatican.

- Three great axes all leading to the Admiralty (centre of naval military power):

- Nevsky Prospect (most famous), Gorokhovaya Street, and Forznevski Avenue

- Spatial sequences along the Nevsky Prospect >> bridge, boulevards, gate, public space, column with statue — building up to the Admiralty

- Column with statue on Admiralty Square; Winter Palace immediately adjacent to Admiralty; power of the Tsar made physically overwhelming

6.3 Rome: St. Peter's Square (Bernini, 1656 to 1667)

- Starting point: messy area around St. Peter's; obelisk already placed by Domenico Fontana in 16th century (must be kept); Benediction Loggia must remain visible

- Bernini's full sequence (from the Tiber to the basilica):

- Via della Conciliazione >> approach street from the Tiber; axis leading uphill toward St. Peter's

- Piazza Rusticucci >> first small square bracketed by two structures; Removed by Mussolini (not part of current experience)

- Piazza Obliqua >> large square holding ca. 300,000 people standing; two intersecting circles; obelisk at centre; two fountains at the crossing axis; Doric colonnades with 140 statues on top; temple-like gates at the outer ends

- Piazza Retta >> funnel-shaped (narrow to wide); rises 3.5m; makes the dwarfed facade (proportion 2.7:1) appear taller by narrowing the viewing angle

Both plan and section orchestrate the spatial sequence: visual climax = the facade of St. Peter's Basilica

- Also: Piazza del Popolo >> by Rainaldi, Bernini, and Fontana; similar use of gates, chapels, and visual sequences

7. Exporting the Baroque City: Washington D. C.

- President Washington commissioned Pierre L'Enfant >> French engineer active in the American War of Independence

- L'Enfant first carefully described the topography; placed main public buildings at key topographic high points

- Urban system has three layers:

- Grid system >> equal block distribution for the city

- Diagonal Baroque axes >> connecting main monuments and democratic institutions (Capitol Hill + White House/President's House)

- The Mall >> landscape axis connecting Capitol Hill to the White House

- Channel system also planned (like Amsterdam) >> warehouses along the Mall for commerce; not realised in the end

- Baroque language (axes, sequences, nodes, grand monuments) applied to represent the power of democracy — not nobility or church

: A four-panel visual composition showcasing historical urban planning for Washington, D.C. The top-left is a colored vintage street map; the top-right is a black-and-white schematic diagram highlighting the city's grid and diagonal avenues; the bottom-left is a detailed architectural plan of a city quadrant; and the bottom-right is a panoramic 1852 lithograph depicting a vision for the city's canals, featuring green spaces, buildings, and a central monument.

8. Conclusion

- Baroque urban design >> ultimate fusion of power and aesthetics; the city as stage for political authority

- Three key Baroque urban elements >> axes (territorial), squares (nodal), sequences (experiential)

- Baroque city extended beyond city walls into the countryside >> permanent assertion of centralised power

- Power expressed: theocratic (Rome/Pope Sixtus 5), absolutist (Paris/Henri 4, St. Petersburg/Peter the Great), economic (London squares), democratic (Washington)

- From Rome to St. Petersburg to Washington: Baroque template globalised through the same spatial vocabulary

1.07 — The City of Labor: Company Towns as Cross-Cultural Phenomenon

1. Context: 18th and 19th Century — Industrialisation and Its Urban Consequences

1.1 Key Inventions

- Piston-driven engine inventors:

- Thomas Newcomen >> piston-driven atmospheric engine

- James Watt >> rotative steam engine with sun-and-planet gear

- Textile inventions (U.K, 18th c.):

Image summary: A composite image featuring four panels of historical mechanical designs. The top-left panel shows three photographs of wooden, boat-shaped objects from different angles. The top-right panel is a technical line drawing showing various structural components and a wheel. The bottom-left panel is a detailed engineering drawing of a machinery system including a large wheel, a piston-like cylinder, and a connecting rod. The bottom-right panel is a technical drawing of a similar machinery system housed within a timber-frame structure, featuring a large flywheel, a vertical cylinder, and overhead beams.

- John Kay >> flying shuttle — allowed weft threads to cross the loom faster

- James Hargreaves >> spinning Jenny — made weaving faster and more efficient

- Steam locomotive pioneers:

- Richard Trevithick >> first steam locomotive

- Blenkinsop >> Salamanca locomotive

- Stockton-Darlington Railway >> first public railway in Britain (1825); speed of 20 to 25 kilometers/h —'too much for the senses of the time'

Image summary: A technical line drawing of an early steam locomotive featuring a large horizontal cylindrical boiler mounted on a chassis with three spoked wheels per side. A tall, thin vertical exhaust pipe stands on the left, while a rectangular structure and a shorter exhaust stack are positioned centrally atop the boiler.

Image summary: A historical painting depicting the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830. A steam locomotive pulls a long line of passenger carriages across a stone arch bridge spanning a river, while a crowd of onlookers in period attire gathers in the foreground, some arriving in horse-drawn carriages.

- Result >> shift from manufacturing (hand labour) to factories (machine labour); explosion of industrial production

1.2 Explosive Urban Growth

- London >> ca. 650,000 in 1700 to ca. 1.5 million by early 19th century to continued rapid growth; factor of 10 to 15 in footprint by end of 19th century

- Dense railway network across Europe by 1845 (black), 1855 (red), 1866 (green), 1890 (yellow) to created new territorial centralities

:Image summary: A map of Central Europe focusing on Germany and surrounding regions, featuring a network of colored lines—red, green, blue, and yellow—that trace various transit or communication routes across the landscape. These lines connect major cities such as Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, and Frankfurt, with numbers labeled along the paths. The map includes geographical markers like the North Sea (Nordsee) and various city names in German and French across Germany, Belgium, France, and Austria.

1.3 Urban Crisis: Living Conditions

- freed-rick Engels (1820 to 1895) >> son of an industrialist from Wuppertal; published'Die Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in England' (1845) — about terrible living conditions in London

- Diseases >> smallpox, measles, scarlet fever spreading rapidly in industrial cities

- Poor hygiene, little light, dense crowding

- Gustave Doré >> French illustrator, published'London: A Pilgrimage' (1872)

- 'Over London by Rail' >> depicted workers in overcrowded row houses, life playing out in backyards and alleys

- Depicted opium use and theft as consequences of bad living conditions

Image summary: A detailed black and white engraving of a crowded, industrial urban slum viewed through a stone archway. The scene depicts densely packed brick tenement buildings with numerous chimneys and narrow alleyways. People are visible in the small courtyards and walkways between the buildings, and in the distance, a large industrial viaduct or bridge with arches looms over the settlement under a smoky sky.

- Miasma theory >> dominant belief that diseases (cholera, 'Black Death') came from 'bad air' in cities; led many urban critics to demand change, Doré also says, that this created bad behavior like crime and opium smoking

- Two issues put on agenda >> housing (where workers live) + workplaces (where workers labour)

1.4 Three Responses to the Urban Crisis

- Radical Utopianism >> start fresh; forget the existing city; build new ideal communities from scratch

- Reform >> improve the existing city through legislation, philanthropic commissions, and large-scale public works

- Continuity of Tradition >> reject industrialisation; return to handicraft culture and medieval city models

Image summary: An aerial photograph of a circular architectural layout consisting of buildings arranged in a ring around a large, central green lawn. A straight pedestrian path bisects the circular lawn, connecting the opposite sides of the building perimeter.

Image summary: An architectural floor plan of a symmetrical, fortified structure featuring a central octagonal courtyard. The building is enclosed by a square outer perimeter wall with small corner bastions. Within the outer walls, the structure contains various rooms and halls surrounding the octagonal core. A list of labeled references in French appears along the right and bottom edges, identifying specific areas of the layout.

।Image summary: Two black and white architectural plans of the 'Ville de Chaumont'. The left image is a bird's-eye perspective drawing showing a circular city center integrated into a rural landscape with winding roads and fields. The right image is a formal geometric site plan depicting the city's symmetrical layout, featuring a large semi-circular plaza surrounded by concentric rows of buildings and radiating streets.

- Ledoux >> neoclassical architect; previously designed 'barrières' (tax gates) at the entry points of Paris

-1779

- Commissioned by the King of France >> designed a new salt-works city (saline royale)

- Salt >> precious commodity: used to preserve food and to produce glass and silver products

- Location >> between the village of Arc and village of Senans (= Arc-et-Senans); close to forest (for fuel/timber) and a river (for water and transport of salt)

- First design >> large square complex: edges = living spaces, corner/mid points = places of production connected by galleries; walled (salt precious); large green spaces + productive gardens

- Second (final) design >> semicircular: centre = director's house + salt works; workers' quarters in arc; church and courthouse; public baths for hygiene; productive + leisure

- Additional elements Ledoux designed >> bridges, market spaces, hospices (for elderly/sick), fountains, cemetery — workers treated with dignity

- Scale >> up to approximately 200 workers (500 max if whole layout realized)

- Criticism (Panopticon) >> layout resembles Bentham's panopticon prison: director at centre could always watch all workers, irrespective of whether he was actually watching

- Partial realisation >> entry building (Doric columns to grotto atmosphere to director's house discovery); workers' housing; salt works (basins plus storage)

al Utopianism Workers Town

……

Senans)

2. Radical Utopianism 2.1 Claude-Nicolas Ledoux: Saline Royale de Chaux (Arc-et-

Figure 2.1 summary: A black and white architectural plan of a circular city, labeled "Saline de Chaux," featuring a symmetrical, concentric layout. A wide central axis bisects the circle, and radiating spokes divide the city into wedge-shaped sectors containing rows of buildings. The design is surrounded by an outer ring and bordered by rural landscape.

2.2 Robert Owen (1771 to 1858): Utopian Socialist and Labour

Reformer

- Scottish; son of a merchant/industrialist; 'utopian socialist'

- Three obstacles to social change >> (1) private property, (2) religion, (3)'present form of marriage' (= nuclear family structure as private unit of care)

- New Lanark (Scotland) >> Owen's own textile mills; introduced kindergarten + school; female employment became possible when childcare was institutionalised

- 1817 publication >> 'Villages of Unity and Mutual Co-Operation' / 'Villages of Harmony and Cooperation': rectangular entities in the territory; square layout; decent living; 300 to 2,000 inhabitants per village

- 1841 publication >> 'Self Supporting Home Colonies': new urban formation as 'magnificent palace containing advantages of metropolis, university, and countrv residence'

- Square of 500 x 500 metres; 2,000 to 2,500 inhabitants; 2,000 to 3,000 acres of land

- Corners >> schools (physical, intellectual, moral, practical — 'from infancy to maturity')

- Centre of each side >> magnificent buildings (concert rooms, assembly halls, libraries, museums, places of worship)

- Sides >> dwelling houses

- Within the square >> gymnasia and baths; refectionies, kitchens; washing houses

- Around >> farms, manufactories, slaughterhouses

- Joint stock company >> tenants are the stockholders (not private landlords) — affordable collective ownership, gradually to pay down rents and become the owners

- Partial realisation >> New Harmony (Indiana, U.S.A): decent houses around a big open square; collective provisions, but much of Owen's original vision diluted in execution

Image summary: An illustration of New Harmony, featuring a complex of multi-story stone buildings in the foreground situated along a river that winds through a valley of rolling green hills and distant mountains.

Image summary: A painting of New Harmony, depicting a large, symmetrical complex of multi-story red brick buildings arranged in a rectangular perimeter around a central courtyard. The architecture features several prominent white towers and domed roofs, situated within a wide valley surrounded by green hills, forests, and a winding river.

।Image summary: A layout diagram of New Harmony showing a central circular area divided into four quadrants. This circle is enclosed within a square boundary, with roads running along each of the four sides of the square. Parallel to the roads are rows of rectangular plots or buildings. A caption at the bottom states the length of the side is half a mile and the area of the square is 160 acres.

Image summary: A black and white architectural plan for New Harmony, featuring a symmetrical, square-shaped town layout. The design is centered around a circular plaza with radiating paths and concentric circles, creating a wheel-like focal point. Symmetrical garden plots and walking paths fill the quadrants of the square, all enclosed by a perimeter wall with distinct protrusions at the corners and midpoints.

Image summary: A historical map of New Harmony, depicting a grid-like town layout with numerous small, numbered rectangular plots of land, street arrangements, and various labeled property owners.

VILLAGE FOR A CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY.

2.3 Charles Fourier (1772 to 1837): The Phalanstery

- French; son of a merchant (same year as Owen: 1772);'utopian socialist'

Image summary: A black and white photograph of a street in New Harmony featuring a row of two-story wooden houses with siding and gabled roofs. A large, leafless tree stands between the first and second houses, and a dirt road runs along the foreground.

- i neory or evolution >> humanity passes through 7 stages; currently in 'barbarism' (4th), moving to 'civilization' (5th), then 'harmony' (7th = ideal)

- Universal Harmony >> new communities called 'phalanxes' (social formation) living in 'phalansteries' (built environment)

- 1822 publication >> 'L'Harmonie universelle et le Phalanstère'

- Phalanstery >greater than 1,620 members; mini-society; children separated from parents ('socialization of the household'); collective household activities; reduced industry; emphasis on agriculture/handicraft/leisure

- Architecture >> image of a Baroque palace ('in an ideal society, everyone lives like a king/queen'); not for royalty but for workers

- Large open square in front; winter gardens between wings; theatre and church; crafts workshops

- Situated in green landscape; fountains; light and airy

।Image summary: An architectural drawing titled L'AVENIR, presenting a perspective of a Phalanstre or Societary Palace dedicated to humanity. The image depicts a large, symmetrical, U-shaped building complex with multiple stories and a central elevated section crowned with a spire.

Image summary: An architectural floor plan and layout for a Phalanstere, featuring a symmetrical building arrangement. The diagram includes a central hall labeled E, flanked by interior service courtyards labeled D, and a large parade ground labeled A. The legend identifies various functional areas: B for a winter garden and greenhouse, F for a theater, G for a church, H for large workshops and warehouses, and J for stables and barns.

: Image summary: A 1847 drawing by Fugère depicting a planned community composed following the principles of Fourier. The scene is a wide-angle architectural landscape featuring a complex of large, multi-story buildings, a prominent tall spire or tower, and a religious building with a steeple. The layout includes open plazas, bridges crossing a waterway with several boats, and surrounding rural landscapes with hills and fields.

2.4 Jean-Baptiste ahn-dray Godin (1817 to 1888): The Familistère (Guise)

: A composite image featuring historical and modern views of the Familistère. The top half is a vintage black-and-white etching depicting an expansive industrial complex with multiple large residential blocks and a large factory building with smoking chimneys. The bottom left contains technical architectural diagrams, including a general plan labeled Fig 55 and detailed floor plans. The bottom right is a contemporary color photograph showing the red-brick facade of the complex facing a paved plaza with benches, a few pedestrians, and a large leafy tree in the foreground.

- Industrialist in Guise (north of France, near Lille) >> produced cast iron stoves

- Implemented Fourier's phalanstery concept as the 'Familistère de Guise'

- Design >> palace-outline with wings of worker apartments; collective baths/toilets at corners; school + theatre combined; small gardens for vegetable growing

- Covered courtyards >> became collective meeting spaces for eating, celebrating, encountering one another (collective close-to-home life)

- Large factory directly adjacent >> (unlike Fourier who wanted limited industry); everyone could walk to work

- Children institutionally cared for >> literate schooling, theatre plays, collective washing — parents freed to work

- Fully realised >> brick architecture, balconies, dignified — in sharp contrast to London back-alley conditions

Figure 3b summary: This architectural cross-section drawing depicts the central portion of the Familistere, a multi-story residential building. The structure features a large, glass-roofed central atrium flanked by two wings, each containing multiple levels of living spaces accessible via internal balconies overlooking the central void. The diagram labels various structural components with letters and includes a ground-level basement area with arched supports, illustrating the building's symmetrical design and vertical organization.

]')Figure 37 summary: An architectural floor plan depicting the housing and common areas of the central part of the Familistère. The diagram shows a symmetrical layout centered around a large open courtyard labeled A, surrounded by various labeled rooms, hallways, and two curved staircases labeled B.

2.5 Brook Farm / George Ripley (Boston, 1843 to 1855)

- Exported Fourier's ideas to the U.S; unity between intellectual and manual labour

- Ideas taken but reinterpreted >> suburban houses, collective spaces reduced; far from original phalanstery

239 NAP-Grundriß: 1 Gemeinschaftsraum 2 Wohnungen 3 Küche 6 Erdgeschöß 8 Dachgeschöß

Figure 239 summary: A set of two black and white photographs and a corresponding architectural floor plan (NAP-Grundri) of a wooden building. The photographs show the exterior of a two-story structure with a covered porch and siding. The floor plan labels specific areas: 1 is the common room (Gemeinschaftsraum), 2 represents apartments (Wohnungen), 3 is the kitchen (Kche), 6 is the ground floor (Erdgeschoss), and 8 is the attic (Dachgeschoss).

3. Reform

3.1 Working-Class Housing: Early Prototypes (1840s–1850s, London)

- Reaction to Engels >> Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring — philanthropy response

- Metropolitan Buildings Act >> legislative response (U.K, mid-19th century)

- Henry Roberts >>'The Dwellings of the Labouring Classes' (1850); model houses with key innovations:

- Open gallery corridors >> gave access to all apartments + allowed light and air from both sides

- 2-bed apartment + living room + kitchen + toilet — radical for working class of 1850

- 1851 Great Exhibition model house >greater than 4-family house cut from a country house typology; repeated across the U.K

Image summary: A black and white architectural floor plan of a building arranged in a U-shape around a central courtyard measuring 70 feet by 30 feet. The layout consists of numerous small rooms, primarily labeled as Bed Room and Living Room, connected by an Open Gallery that runs along the inner perimeter of the building. One section on the far left is shaded and labeled as Old Building Unsustainable.

: A sepia-toned photograph of a two-story brick building with a symmetrical facade. The building features two chimneys, decorative gables on the roofline, and a central recessed balcony on the second floor. A man in a dark suit stands by the main entrance on the ground floor next to a low wall that separates the property from the street.

: A sepia-toned photograph of a multi-story brick building complex arranged around a central courtyard. The architecture features repeated arched openings and recessed balconies with railings on several floors. A tall lamppost stands in the foreground next to a metal fence that borders the open courtyard area.

Image summary: A black and white architectural sketch of a two-story building facade. The structure is symmetrical with a central projecting section featuring a balcony on the second floor. Each side of the central section contains one window per floor, and the roofline is topped with decorative gables and two tall chimneys at the far ends.

Image summary: A black and white architectural floor plan of a residential home. The layout is symmetrical, featuring two identical Living Rooms on the left and right, each measuring 14ft 2in by 10ft 4in. Centered at the top are two Parents' Bed Rooms, both measuring 11ft 6in by 9ft. Four additional Bed Rooms, each 9ft by 8ft 9in, are located in the top corners. The central area contains two Scullery sections, a central staircase, and two Lobbies at the bottom.

PLAS OF UPTO FLOORS.

3.2 Paris: Cité Napoléon and Baron Haussmann

- Louis Napoleon Bonaparte >> president then self-declared emperor; commissioned urban improvements

- Cité >> designed by Marie Gabriel Veugny (female architect)

- Two rows of dwellings + large central courtyard; light + ventilation from 2 sides; private kitchens; early private bathrooms (very radical for 1851 Paris)

- Inserted into city centre of Paris — workers not pushed out of the city

- Baron Haussmann >> Prefect of the Seine, commissioned 1853; transformed Paris over approximately 15 years

- 'The city is like a wild forest: you need to cut trails and clearings'

- approximately 12,000 buildings demolished; major new axes and boulevards cut through the fabric

- Retained important monuments; connected them with wide straight avenues

- 'Urbanisation starts from beneath' >> sewage systems, water supply infrastructure laid first

- Created displacement/gentrification: labourers pushed to periphery (faubourgs)

- Haussmann building typology (6 to 7 levels):

- Level 1: commercial (double height) + striped pattern; Level 2: mezzanine/storage

- Level 3 (noble/bel étage): grand apartments for the chic bourgeoisie — highest ceilinas

- 1 levels 4 to 5: standard residential; Level 6 to 7: smaller servants' rooms in roof

- Standardised public space details: railings, benches, kiosks, landscaping

- Outcome >> created the Paris of the impressionists (Pissarro's boulevard paintings); colonised by bourgeoisie rather than labourers

Image summary: A collage of four architectural studies of a building. The top left is a birds-eye perspective drawing of a large complex with several multi-story buildings and manicured gardens. The top right contains two floor plan diagrams and several architectural section drawings showing interior layouts and elevations. The bottom left is a detailed cross-section drawing of a building wing featuring a central stairwell and tiered floors. The bottom right is a photograph of an interior corridor leading toward an outdoor view, adjacent to a glass-roofed atrium with plants.

: Image summary: A composite of six images illustrating the urban transformation of Paris by Baron Haussmann. It includes a black-and-white photograph of rubble and ruins from the demolition of old buildings, a street map with new boulevards marked in red, a cross-section illustration of a traditional crowded tenement house, a modern photograph of wide Haussmann-style boulevards lined with uniform stone apartment buildings, an aerial photograph showing the radial street pattern centered around the Arc de Triomphe, and technical architectural drawings of building facades and floor plans.

4. Continuity of Tradition

4.1 William Morris (1834 to 1896): Arts and Crafts Movement

-'News from Nowhere' (1890) >> against industrialisation; industrialisation = alienation from one's work

- Remedy >> return to vernacular tradition: medieval city, small towns, handicraft culture, local materials

- Founded the Arts and Crafts Movement; Philip Webb's Red House = key built example

Image summary: A photograph of a large, multi-winged brick manor house with steep, brown tiled roofs and multiple chimneys, surrounded by green lawns and lush shrubbery under a blue sky with light clouds.

4.2 John Ruskin (1819 to 1900): The Stones of Venice

-'The Stones of Venice' (1851 to 1853) >> re-reading Venice across Byzantine, Gothic, and Renaissance eras

- Gothic >> best era: manual craft was central; only through direct labour can thought be fully realised in built form

- Small-scale ornamentation as a value; craftsmanship visible in urban detail

4.3 Ruskin Colony in Tennessee (Julius Augustus Wayland)

- Exported Morris/Ruskin ideas to the U.S near Tennessee City in the late 19th century

- All members equal shareholders; handicraft as central activity; no factories; looked like a village

- Ideas inspiring but reinterpreted; same dilution pattern as with Fourier/Owen in the U.S

Image summary: A sepia-toned vintage photograph showing a small, rural settlement identified by handwritten text at the top as being from Ruskin, Tennessee. The scene depicts a cluster of modestly sized wooden buildings and houses scattered across a landscape with bare trees and open ground, with a larger, two-story rectangular building dominating the right side of the frame.

From.Huskin'lenn.

5. Conclusion

: Image summary: A sepia photograph of a group of people working inside a large, dark cave or underground cavern. The space is filled with numerous barrels, crates, and bottles arranged on shelves and the ground, suggesting the cave is being used for storage or production. Several people, dressed in light-colored long garments and aprons, are positioned throughout the area, with some standing by the storage containers and others sitting on the ground.

- 19th-century industrial city produced three simultaneous responses to the same crisis

- Utopians (Ledoux, Owen, Fourier, Godin) >> designed entirely new communities; few survived in their original form

- Reformers (Haussmann, Roberts, Veugny) >> improved existing city through legislation and design; lasting consequences for Paris, London

- Traditionalists (Morris, Ruskin) >> preserved craft and small-scale urban life against industrial logic; became very influential globally

- Next >> Garden City movement: radically new concept bridging density and green space; important in Europe and Japan

1.08 — Garden Cities of Tomorrow: From the Global North to the Global South and Back

1. Context: Late 19th Century

- Large empires >> global trade routes; Britain as main investor and trading centre

- Enormous population growth >> agricultural revolution + medical advances; population doubled or tripled (1700 to 1900); birth rates up, death rates down

- Cities of over 1 million (Grossstädte / megalopolises) >> London, New York, Philadelphia, Berlin, Paris, Tokyo — infrastructure unable to keep pace

- Example >> Hamburg cholera outbreak (1840s-1860s): large part of population died from cholera due to inadequate water infrastructure in a rapidly growing city

- Migration >> push: poverty in home country (Europe); pull: available work abroad (North America); 1880s-1914: approximately 900,000 people per year from Europe to the U.S.A

- Cultural migration >> Japanese art influenced European painters (Van Gogh, French Impressionists); urban design ideas also travelling globally with unprecedented speed

.Image summary: A side-by-side comparison of four artworks: two Japanese woodblock prints and two paintings. The leftmost print depicts figures walking across a wooden bridge over water under a dark sky. The second image is a painting of a similar bridge scene with a bright green landscape and blue sky, framed by decorative vertical borders containing Japanese text. The third image is a painting of a figure from behind, brushing long reddish-brown hair. The fourth image is a Japanese woodblock print of a woman in profile, brushing her long black hair.

- First capitalist crisis >> 'Great Depression' 1873 to 1896: deflation, bank runs, financial panic; the logic of ever-expanding industrial capitalism was questioned for the first time

2. Ebenezer Howard and the Garden City

2.1 Intellectual Context

- Howard >> British citizen; lived in Nebraska (U.S.A) as a newspaper reporter; worked in Chicago

- 1898 wrote the book to-morrow, where he said that we have to think about a different sort of society curvilinear streets, tree-lined, green centre — a completely different vision from London's slums (Olmsted = same architect as Central Park in New York)

Image summary: A side-by-side comparison consisting of a historic urban planning map on the left and a photograph of a wooded residential area on the right. The map, titled General Plan of Riverside, features a curvilinear street layout integrated with green spaces. The photograph shows a paved road winding through a lush landscape of large, mature trees with green and yellow autumn foliage.

- Back in London (1870s): encountered key thinkers:

- William Morris >> socialist, anti-industrial, craft tradition; 'Commonweal' journal of the Socialist League

- Pyotr Kropotkin >> anarchist; preached revolution and collective living

- Henry George >>'Progress and: who owns the land? Factory owners own the land to they set rents and create poverty; land must be redistributed

- Edward Bellamy >> 'Looking Backward 2000 to 1887': imagined year 2000 with all class struggle erased; society of abundance through collective organisation

- Social Individualism:

- "individuals grouping themselves in a social manner... {The Garden City) will lead people just as far as they desire to go in the direction of collective effort, but no farther."

- as land value raises: return to community

- "a colony having for its basis the public ownership of land... and of affording an opportunity for the creation of industrial and social conditions far superior to those which now exist."

2.2 Three Magnets Model

- Town >> social opportunity, but: closed to nature, smoke, slums

- Country >> beauty of nature, fresh air, but: isolation, lack of society

- Town-Country (Garden City) >> combines both: bright homes + gardens, pure air + water, social opportunity + beauty of nature; 'Where will the people go? They will go to the Town-Country!'

2.3 Key Economic Principle

- Book >>'To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real

- Quote >> 'The crowded cities have done their work. They are, in the nature of things, entirely unadapted for a society in which the social side of our nature is demanding a larger share of recognition.'

- 'Social individualism' >> respect for individual families (own house, own garden) + grouping in a social/collective manner

- Land owned by the community (trust) >> rising land value returns to the community, not to private landlords; after 20 to 30 years the community owes nothing

: Figure 2.2 summary: A social commentary diagram titled The Three Magnets illustrating the pull of Town, Country, and a combined Town-Country ideal. Two opposing magnets at the top depict the negative attractions of Town, including low wages and overcrowding, and Country, including lack of society and low wages. A third, larger magnet at the bottom represents the Town-Country ideal, attracting positive qualities such as bright homes and gardens, freedom, cooperation, and the flow of capital.

2.4 Garden City Diagram (32,000 people on approximately 6,000 acres)

- Centre >> Central Park + Crystal Palace (covered public space inspired by Joseph Paxton's 1851 Hyde Park Crystal Palace); public functions: town hall, hospital, library, theatre, concert hall

- 6 radial boulevards connecting centre to edge

- Housing rings >greater than 5th to 1st Avenue: single-family houses each with private front and back garden

- Grand Avenue >> wide green ring-boulevard between rings; punctuated by neighbourhood-scale public services (schools, nurseries)

- Industry at outer edge >> along the railway ring that circles the city and connects to other cities

- Canals + water reservoirs in the green agricultural belt surrounding the city

- Bigger system >> multiple garden cities networked: 270 sq km total for 250,000 people; central city of 58,000 at hub; each satellite city of 32,000

- Adelaide growth comparison >> amorphous sprawl versus planned garden city extensions always keeping open country nearby

A.R.C.O-C.L.G.Y

: A diagram of a planned city and surrounding land layout. The design is arranged in concentric arcs radiating from a center point. At the core is a Central Park, surrounded by rings of Houses and Gardens, and a circular railway. Radiating from this center are sectors containing various land uses, including houses, gardens, fruit farms, asylums for the blind and deaf, farm for epileptics, brickfields, and cow pastures. The outermost ring identifies agricultural land covering 5,000 acres with a population of 32,000, and a city area of 1,000 acres. Other outer zones include new forests, agricultural college, small holdings, large farms, industrial schools, and sewage farms.

Image summary: A historical land-use diagram for an Agricultural College layout, designed in a radial, fan-shaped pattern. The center is a hub from which concentric circles and radiating lines divide the land into specialized zones. The innermost core is labeled Central, surrounded by rings of Houses and Gardens and Grand Avenue. Moving outward, the map identifies zones for Children's Cottage Homes, Cow Pastures, Fruit Farms, and Convalescent Homes. The outer edges feature New Forests, Small Holdings, Large Farms, and Sewage Farms. Transportation elements include a Canal, Roads, and a Main Line Railway crossing the lower section.

: Image summary: A historical city plan for Garden City, featuring a radial urban layout. The design is centered around a circular "Garden" containing a library, theatre, and concert hall. Radiating from this center are several boulevards, most notably "Grand Avenue," which bisects a curved residential grid of reddish blocks. The city is bordered by the Columbus Boulevard and an outer ring including railway stations, factories, allotments, dairy farms, and large farms. The map includes a linear scale in the bottom right corner.

>Image summary: A map of Adelaide and North Adelaide, delineated by several surrounding areas of Park Lands: North Park Lands, West Park Lands, South Park Lands, and East Park Lands. Within the city layout, the map labels key locations including Wellington Square in North Adelaide, and Light Square, Hindmarsh Square, Victoria Square, Whitmore Square, and Hurtle Square in Adelaide. Other marked locations include the Botanical Gardens and two stations.

Figure 7 summary: A conceptual circular city plan titled Group of Slumless Smokeless Cities, depicting a network of cities including Garden City, Gladscone, Philadelphia, and Rurisvill. The layout features a Central City with a population of 12,000 and an area of 3,000 acres at the core, surrounded by a total area of 6,000 acres and a total population of 250,000 across the group. The design is organized by concentric circles and radial spokes, incorporating municipal boundaries, canals, railways, and zones for allotments, industrial homes, a college for the blind, and an insane asylum, all interconnected by reservoirs and waterfalls.

3. Garden Cities Realised

3.1 Letchworth Garden City (1906) — Barry Parker and

Raymond Unwin

- Location >greater than 40 kilometers north of London; on the King's Cross rail line; sited at topographic high point

- Town square at centre >> public buildings: town hall, free church, school, museum, hospital; parks + Memorial Hall for events

- Industry along the railway line (following Howard's diagram)

- 1905 'Cheap Cottages Exhibition' >> future inhabitants could rent or buy model houses; cheapest cottage: £150 (equivalent to ca. 16,000 C.H.F today)

- 1904 Building Regulations >> social individualism in architecture:

- Houses: simple, no useless ornamentation; pebbledash or rough-cast walls; tiled roofs; harmonious materials

- Public/collective buildings: stand out; dark red brick; more formal + occasional ornamentation

- Green: trees, hedges, shrubs designed from the beginning

- Station Road >> first housing built; row of 3-family houses that read as a single collective entity

- The 'Close' >> key new urban typological contribution: green semi-public space enclosed by houses; belongs to local community (not the city at large); used for leisure, sport, children's play — a collective domain between private and public

- Criticism >> initially caricatured in press (people in strange clothes, curvilinear streets mocked)

- Today >> popular, mainly middle-to-upper-middle class; 50% of original residents were industrial workers

Image summary: A two-part historical document. The left side is a detailed plan titled Section (18th) & Centre of Garden City, featuring a central garden of 7 acres surrounded by boulevards and including a Central Park of 150 acres, various roads, school, and houses with gardens. The right side is a regional transit or boundary map showing towns and railway lines, including labels for Welwyn, Hatfield, and Stevenage, with a dotted line indicating a specific route.

Image summary: A historical map titled First Garden City Ltd Plan of Present Development, Spring 1906, for an estate office in Letchworth. The map details the layout of a developing town, showing a network of roads, residential plots, and designated factory sites divided by a railway line. Key areas labeled include the Town Square, various factory sites, and a dividing line between different development zones.

Image summary: A composite of three visuals depicting the development of Letchworth. On the left is a historical land-use map with boundaries and designated zones, including a note stating the total area is about 3,500 acres. On the top right is a black and white photograph of a row of gabled houses on Station Road, Letchworth. On the bottom right is a modern color aerial photograph showing a densely developed residential and commercial urban area.

:Image summary: This architectural plan from 1906 for the Pixmore Estate Garden City Tenants depicts a proposed group of cottages. On the left, a site plan shows the layout of multiple small buildings arranged around winding paths and open spaces, bordering a factory and workshop area. On the right, detailed architectural drawings provide a front and back elevation of a terraced cottage block, a side elevation, a building section, and two floor plans detailing the interior room arrangements.

GARDEN CITY TEWNITO PROMING PROMOTE ESTATE PROVINCE GROUP OF GOTTARES PHOENIX PELI

3.2 Hampstead Garden Suburb – Parker, Unwin + Edwin

Lutyens

- Promoted by Henrietta Barnett >> published pamphlet 'Matters that Matter'; set up the Hampstead Garden Suburb Trust

- Trust composition >> Barnett + two earls + two lawyers + two Free Churchmen + the Bishop — not private developers

- 'A garden suburb for all classes' >> different social classes in discrete areas; varied front garden depths for greener appearance

- Central square >> designed by Edwin Lutyens (not Parker & Unwin): two churches + institute (town hall) + school buildings; raised on artificial topography

- Defined outer boundary >> treated like a wall to prevent sprawl; gates at entry points (like entering a historic small town)

- Closes >> green semi-public collective spaces returning; some with tennis courts; standard feature

- Arts and Crafts aesthetic for interiors; single-family houses with private front + back gardens

Image summary: A pair of architectural site plans for Hampstead Garden Suburb in London. The left side is a detailed black and white floor plan highlighting specific buildings including a tennis court, orchard, and church. The right side is a wider site map showing the layout of the suburb's residential areas and green spaces integrated into the surrounding landscape.

Image summary: A side-by-side comparison consisting of a black and white line drawing of a historic multi-story stone building with arched entrances and a tower on the left, and an aerial photograph of a row of similar white-walled houses with dark pitched roofs lining a street on the right.

: Image summary: An architectural proposal including a colored site plan and a detailed line drawing for a "Proposed Garden Suburb at Hampstead North London." The map shows a planned residential layout with clusters of houses, winding roads, and preserved green spaces, integrated into the natural landscape. An accompanying black-and-white illustration depicts a conceptual view of a large, traditional English-style residential building with a central courtyard and surrounding gardens.

3.3 Welwyn Garden City — Louis de Soissons

- Designer >> Louis de Soissons (Canadian architect, based in London)

- More formal layout than Parker/Unwin; big formal central axis; industry along railroad line; closes throughout

- Deliberately low rents to very low construction costs: large roofs almost touching the ground instead of walls at first floor

- Could rent or buy; controlled selling prices to prevent gentrification

- Closes

: Image summary: Two architectural plans for Welwyn Garden City. The left plan, titled "Road & Rail Communications," depicts the comprehensive city layout showing the integration of road networks and railway lines. The right plan focus on "Neighborhoods" and is attributed to Louis de Saissons, 1920, featuring a detailed close-up of residential street patterns and building footprints.

।Image summary: A composite image consisting of three views of a residential area. The top left is a photograph of a row of red brick houses with white trim and green shrubbery. The top right is a photograph of a larger red brick house with a white central section and an attached garage. The bottom is an aerial photograph showing a densely developed suburban neighborhood with numerous red-roofed houses, green trees, and a railway line running diagonally along the right side.

4. Den'en Toshi — The Japanese Garden City

- Knowledge transfer >> Alfred Richardson's book'Garden translated into Japanese

- Japanese translations of 'Garden City' >> Den Toshi, Denkitoshi, Kaen Toshi, Denen Toshi (= Garden City, Country-like City, Flower City, Pastoral City) — revealing different cultural interpretations

- Implementation >> Japanese railroad industrialists developed garden cities along rail lines from Tokyo:

- Kobayashi Ichizo >> planned settlements for railroad company employees

- Baron Shibusawa >> planned multiple Den'en Toshis along railroad lines

- Den-en Chofu >> example near Tokyo Bay; singular parcels, green landscape maintained

- Key differences from Letchworth:

- No industry nearby implies people commuted to Tokyo (not self-sufficient)

- Land owned by railroad industrialists (not community trust)

- Became upper-middle-class commuter suburbs, not mixed-class communities

- Each house had its own individual architectural style (no collective architecture)

- Letchworth: 50% labourers/workers; Den'en Toshi: upper-middle class

- Key lesson >> urban form (green, houses with gardens) adopted; social, economic, and collective programme largely dropped

: A collage of six images illustrating urban planning and architecture in Japan. The top row consists of two line-drawing maps; the left is a wide view of a town's street grid and the right is a detailed plot plan showing divided parcels of land. The middle row contains two aerial photographs; the left shows low-density housing with curved streets and green spaces, while the right shows a high-density urban area with a tight grid of small buildings. The bottom row features three black-and-white photographs of individual two-story houses in various architectural styles.

5. Rus in Urbe: Linear City Variants

5.1 Arturo Soria y Mata: La Ciudad Lineal (Madrid)

-1882

- Spanish engineer; proposed a linear city between two existing towns to avoid sprawl

- Central axis of 60 metres wide >> electrified tram; electricity, water, sewage infrastructure all bundled in one axis

- Allotment system of 'manzanas' (big blocks) >> plots of all sizes from large to very small; social mix in every block

- Rule >> only 1/5 of any plot could be built — all residents kept in direct contact with green landscape

- Magazine >> 'La Ciudad Lineal' published to promote the idea

- Partially realised around Madrid >> some sections survive today in the periphery

- Also designed urban architecture: minimal house (6,000 pesetas = ca. 28,000 C.H.F) up to 'precious hotel' (60,000 pesetas)

Image summary: A black and white line drawing of a land plot divided into many narrow, parallel rectangular strips. The plot is long and slightly curved, situated within a natural landscape featuring textured ground and organic shapes.

Image summary: A watercolor architectural drawing depicting a street scene with a row of trees and small buildings on either side of a wide road. A caption at the bottom identifies the location as Calle Principal, noting a width of 60 meters.

Image summary: An aerial photograph of a dense urban area with a red line drawn across it, marking a path from the center-left toward the far right of the city landscape.

Image summary: A historical map titled Compania Madrilena de Urbanizacion (C.M.U.) Fundadora de la Ciudad Lineal (1894), showing a planned linear city layout. The map features a central arterial road, labeled Ciudad Lineal, extending diagonally across the landscape, with various intersecting roads and labeled locations connecting it to other areas.

Image summary: Three stacked rectangular panels of architectural site plans or urban layouts, featuring dense, intricate patterns of walkways, gardens, and building footprints. The middle panel is distinguished by a prominent, symmetrical cross-shaped building structure situated among organic, curving landscape paths.

Image summary: A black-and-white historical map showing an urban grid and surrounding rural areas. The top section features a series of numbered rectangular city blocks, ranging from 68 to 100, labeled MANZANAS DE LA CIUDAD LINEAL. Below this grid, the map depicts various landmarks and locations, including Chamartin, El Progreso, and Ventas del Espiritu Santo, interspersed with roads, streams, and smaller clusters of buildings.

Image summary: A black and white architectural drawing of a small, single-story building with a gabled roof, flanked by trees. To the left of the building is a vertical elevation drawing of a structure with cross-braced window or door panels. Text at the top reads PRECIO DEL HOTEL 6000 PESETAS, and text at the bottom left identifies the layout as PLANO DE EMPLAZAMIENTO.

Image summary: A technical architectural drawing consisting of a floor plan labeled Planta on the left and a cross-section or elevation labeled Cubierta on the right. The floor plan shows a rectangular building divided into multiple rooms, including spaces labeled Recibidor and Ante Camara. A graphic scale labeled Escala grafica in metros is provided at the bottom.

Image summary: An architectural design sheet titled "CONSTRUCCIONES de la CIUDAD LINEAL" featuring the plans for a hotel priced at 6,000 pesetas. The sheet includes a perspective drawing of a small, two-story house with a gabled roof, along with three technical diagrams: a small site plan and two detailed floor plans showing room layouts.

Image summary: An architectural presentation for Construcciones de la Ciudad Lineal featuring a sketch of a multi-story residence with a prominent pointed tower and a corresponding top-down site plan in the upper right corner.

Image summary: An architectural drawing of two floor plans labeled PLANTAC, with one designated as PRIM. and the other as SEGUNDA. These black and white diagrams detail the layout of rooms, walls, and doorways for two different levels of a building.

Image summary: A panoramic line drawing of a planned city layout featuring a grid of streets and rectangular blocks. The town consists of numerous small buildings, gardens, and courtyards, with a prominent circular plaza containing a central structure located in the lower left quadrant. The city is situated on a flat plain, bordered in the background by a range of rolling hills.

TEORÍA DE LAS CIUDADES LINEALES

Ejemplo de una Ciudad Limei emitando dos criadores aglomerados, o sea, una Ciudad Limei moderna uniendo dos Ciudados-pantos anti- guas con una taja a cada lido de 100 metros de banque.

5.2 Russian Disurbanists and Magnitogorsk

- Disurbanists >> Mikhail Okhitovich, Moisei Ginzburg, Mikhail Barshch — proposed linear extensions for Moscow

- Goal >> spread industry, education, administration equally across Russian territory so all citizens participate in progress; erase rural/urban inequality

- Moscow to gradually empty >> deteriorated buildings torn down, turned into parks; city decongests as linear arms spread out

- Magnitogorsk (Ivan Leonidov + O.S.A group) >> steel-producing city in Ural region, approximately 1,600 kilometers east of Moscow

- Linear extension of 25 kilometers from existing city along Ural River

- Zones: railroad / production zone / green zone / residential zone / (Ural River)

- Housing: mix of low-rise + high-rise, gridded layout; collective spaces at centre of each housing unit; minimal private cells around

- Remained mostly on paper but enormously influential globally

Image summary: A high-contrast, black-and-white historical map or architectural plan of a city, featuring organic shapes, intersecting lines, and several small inset images or diagrams. Russian text is visible in the upper right corner.

Image summary: An aerial photograph showing a complex of walkways and a small building situated in an open area with scattered trees and a curved path.

Image summary: A black and white architectural site plan or landscape drawing showing a linear development of small, grid-like structural plots situated between topographic contour lines and several circular shapes of varying sizes.

Image summary: A line drawing illustrating the concept of the Linear City, featuring a long, straight central axis flanked by grids of rectangular buildings and open green spaces. The layout extends toward a distant horizon, with a pyramid and scattered trees positioned in the surrounding landscape.

Image summary: A black and white planning diagram for an urban area located along the Ural River (rivière Oural). The layout is organized in parallel strips: a railway line (voies ferrees) at the top, followed by a production zone (zone de production), a green zone (zone verte), a residential zone (zone residentielle), and a park (parc) adjacent to the river. To the right, the map includes community enterprises (entreprises communautaires) and the House of Soviets (maison des soviets). A diagonal line indicates the direction of prevailing winds (vents dominants) blowing from the top right toward the bottom left.

Image summary: A black and white architectural drawing of a rectangular, grid-like building structure featuring a roof garden with trees and a central spiral staircase that ascends from the ground floor to the top. A fence is located on the ground level, and various organic shapes and plant-like forms are integrated along the rooftop.

6. Conclusion

- Garden City >> response to industrial city's failure; Howard's key innovation was social-economic (land communally owned, value returns to community)

- Realised in Letchworth (1906), Hampstead (Parker/Unwin + Lutyens), Welwyn (de Soissons) — each adapting the model to local conditions

- Globalised >> Den'en Toshi (Japan): retained green form, dropped social programme; den-en Chofu as key example

- Linear City >> alternative model: bundle infrastructure on axis + direct landscape access; Soria y Mata (Madrid) + Russian Disurbanists (Magnitogorsk)

- The 'Close' >> Garden City's most enduring urban typological contribution: semi-public green space belonging to the local community

- Key insight >> urban design models always get 'acculturated' when they migrate: form travels, social programme rarely follows

1.09 — Civilized Wilderness and City Beautiful: Olmsted's Parks and Burnham's Urban Plans

1. Context: U.S.A as Powerhouse of Industrialisation

- U.S.A >> rich in coal, oil, and gas; strong infrastructure (roads, railways); fuelled enormous urban growth

- Cities of greater than 1 million: Philadelphia, New York, Chicago, Boston (also Tokyo by this point)

- New technologies >> elevator (enabled high-rise); electricity and electric light bulbs (city usable at night); local power stations in New York from 1880s

- Urban growth >> New York grew enormously from 1800 to early 20th century; same for Boston and other U.S cities

- Consequences >> bad living conditions, disease; medical community began investigating causes; urban social sciences emerging

- Pittsburgh Survey >> comprehensive analysis of social welfare in an industrial city: housing conditions mapped and linked to typhoid fever; social + health well-being examined together

- Plan of Chicago >> commissioned by the Commercial Club (industrialists alarmed by city conditions); first comprehensive city vision

1.1 The Parks Movement

- Mid 19th century

- Europe and North America

- Causal belief >> green spaces improve both physical health (miasma/air quality) and social conditions

- First attention fell on existing green spaces in cities >> cemeteries: large green tracts already there, rediscovered as amenities for the living

2. Frederick Law Olmsted — Parks and Parkways

2.1 Inspiration: Birkenhead Park (U.K)

- Olmsted visited Birkenhead Park (near Liverpool) and was inspired >> first publicly funded urban park, accessible to everyone regardless of class

- Olmsted's quote:'The pleasure ground [Birkenhead Park] is entirely, unreservedly, and forever the people's own. The poorest British peasant is as free to enjoy it as the British queen.'

- Lesson: a democratic public park for all citizens — this is what Olmsted brought to the U.S

Image summary: A split composition featuring a vintage architectural site plan on the left and a corresponding photograph on the right. The plan is a detailed line drawing of a landscaped garden with winding paths, water features, and structured plantings. The photograph depicts a serene landscape with a small classical pavilion building situated by a pond, surrounded by autumn-foliage trees and lush greenery.

2.2 Central Park, New York (1858 competition win)

- >> Manhattan's street grid already planned; Central Park site was planned to be urbanised, but site was still open

- Seneca Village >> existing community of freed African Americans, Irish and German immigrants living on the rocky terrain; displaced for Central Park construction (reality of urban design: displacement)

- Designers >> Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux; proposal: transform bare rocky terrain into a lush green immersive environment

- Quote: 'A park exercises a very different and much greater influence upon the progress of a city in its general structure than any other ordinary public work.'

- Design challenge >> East-West mobility in Manhattan still needed; solution: multiple layered mobility systems within the park landscape:

- Transverse roads >> East-West crossings for city traffic (sunken so they don't disrupt the park experience)

- Drives >> carriage roads within the green park

- Rides >> horse-riding paths

- Paths >> pedestrian paths

- Bridges >> at every crossing of mobility systems; each bridge given a unique architecture to serve as orientation marker in the immersive green landscape

- Five distinct atmospheres within Central Park:

- The Mall >> open-air reception hall for the city; broad promenade lined with trees and benches; tiled galleries; leads to the Bethesda Terrace and Bethesda Fountain at the end; overlooking the lake

- Sheep Meadow >> originally an actual sheep meadow; productive space within the park; now used for mass leisure

- The Ramble >> wild, primary nature feeling; small twisting paths, rocky outcroppings — like being in primary wilderness

- The Ravine >> waterfall, massive stones, most extreme wild atmosphere in the park

- Belvedere Castle >> elevated viewpoint; orientation marker

।Image summary: A collage containing a historical map of Central Park and five comparative photographs. The map at the top identifies key locations including Sheep Meadow, Bethesda Terrace, The Mall, The Ramble, Seneca Village, and The Ravine. Below the map, a series of images contrast the historical landscape with modern views, including an archival sketch of an arched bridge, a panoramic painting of a lakeside scene, a photograph of sheep grazing in a meadow with skyscrapers in the background, and a collection of contemporary views showing a gothic tower, a waterfall, a rocky ravine, a tree-lined path, and a stone tunnel.

2.3 The Parkway

- New urban design figure invented by Olmsted and Vaux

- A road approximately 90 metres wide; intensively tree-lined; buildings set back; multiple mobility modes in between:

- Carriages (right arrow later cars), pedestrians, wagons/cyclists — all separated

- Main purpose >> when you travel along a parkway, you feel as if you are driving through a park

- Also >> parkways connect existing parks into a continuous green network (commuter feels constantly in nature)

- Examples:

- Bay Ridge Parkway, Brooklyn >> along the waterfront

- Buffalo >> Delaware Park, Martin Luther King Park, South Park all connected via parkways into a continuous green system

Image summary: A historical architectural plan titled City of Brooklyn, Plan of a Portion of Park Way as Proposed to be Laid Out from the Eastern Part of the City to the Plaza. The drawing depicts three parallel sections of a proposed parkway, each featuring two rows of evenly spaced trees. Between these sections are marked lanes. The layout is labeled as the Proposed Plan, with a section below it labeled Present Plan.

Image summary: A historical map titled Plan of Lot Lines from 1st Avenue to East Shore Road in Bay Ridge Parkway, detailing the layout of land parcels and road alignments along the waterfront.

2.4 Boston Emerald Necklace

Image summary: A set of four cross-sectional diagrams illustrating the changing use of a street over time from 1875 to 1930. The 1875 diagram shows space for pedestrians, wagons, and carriages. By 1895, bicycles and equestrians are added. The 1905 layout incorporates fast trotters alongside existing modes. By 1930, the street layout is dominated by slow and fast automobiles, along with bicycles and pedestrians, reflecting the transition from horse-drawn and human-powered transport to motorized vehicles.

Image summary: A map showing a network of greenways or park paths connecting various open spaces across a developed urban area. The paths link several larger green zones, including one in the top center and another in the bottom right, weaving through a gridded street layout.

- Series of interconnected parks + parkways threaded through Boston like a 'necklace with pearls'

- Aim: should look as if 'a natural growth slightly refined by art' had always been there

- Components (each a different 'pearl' with its own character):

- Franklin Park >> formerly agricultural land; leisure (sports, strolling) + formal Mall / 'greensward' for representative functions

- Arnold Arboretum >> educational space: large variety of species for people to learn about trees and shrubs

- Jamaica Pond (109 acres, 66 of which water) >> park defined by water; pavilions; mainly leisurely use of the water

- Muddy River / Riverway >> formerly a sewage space; banks redesigned into a linear park; sports and recreation

- Back Bay Fens >> formerly marshy terrain; half water, half trees; sport; connects to the Charles River

- Today: walkable/bikeable for hours; still experienced as continuous green system through dense Boston

Image summary: A collage of historical maps and photographs documenting the planning and landscape of Franklin Park and Jamaica Park. The collection includes three detailed archival plans showing park layouts and parkway systems, a black and white photograph of a wide grassy field with figures, several color and grayscale photographs of wooded areas, rivers, and tree-lined roads, and a specific map labeled Plan of the Parkway between Muddy River Gate House and Jamaica Park.

3. The City Beautiful Movement

3.1 Definition (Four Points)

- Social reform >> coupling physical/urban reform to social reform; built environment reform improves social conditions

- Cultural parity with Europe >> U.S cities had been growing fast but lacked European cities' cultural grandeur (Paris, Berlin); City Beautiful aimed to match that

- Beaux-Arts inspiration >> composition, symmetry, axiality, neoclassical architecture as main design vocabulary

- Civic space >> the key public element is not only the park but the formal civic square; hard spaces, civic centres, playgrounds

- Key theorist >> Charles Mulford Robinson,'The Improvement of Towns and Cities' (1901): trees, parks, drives, squares, playgrounds, urban architecture

3.2 Daniel Hudson Burnham: World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago (1893)

- 1893 >> celebrating the 400th anniversary of Columbus's arrival in the Americas; 200 temporary buildings along Lake Michigan

- Testing ground for City Beautiful ideas; located at intersection of naval, rail, and road mobility

- Design >> enormous Civic Centre as focal point; axiality, symmetry, Beaux-Arts neoclassical buildings (even temporary ones monumentalised with statues and cupolas); electric lighting for grand effect

- Green spaces by Olmsted; cultural palaces by Burnham (collaboration model)

- Also had the 'Midway' >> area for low culture (bars, restaurants) alongside the monumental civic zone

- Highly influential: proved Beaux-Arts Civic Centre was viable in a North American context

Image summary: A collage of four historical images related to the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The top-left is a souvenir map of the exhibition grounds at Jackson Park and the Midway Plaisance. The top-right is a colorful aerial illustration of the ornate neoclassical buildings and lagoons. The bottom-right is a black-and-white photograph showing crowds of people and horse-drawn carriages on a wide thoroughfare. The bottom-left is a black-and-white photograph of a wide canal flanked by grand white buildings and a statue on a pedestal.

Image summary: An aerial view illustration of the McMillan Plan, depicting a proposed urban layout for Washington, D.C. The plan features a vast, structured park system with wide green malls and diagonal boulevards intersecting the city's existing grid, extending toward the Potomac River.

Image summary: A black and white architectural site plan depicting a symmetrical urban layout. The design features a central wide boulevard flanked by organized blocks of buildings and green spaces, culminating in a large, ornate plaza at the bottom with curved landscaping and a central focal point.

Image summary: A black and white aerial photograph of a highly structured urban layout featuring symmetrical parkland, wide boulevards, and grand architectural structures. The plan is characterized by strong geometric lines and radial paths that converge on a large, central civic building surrounded by manicured gardens.

3.3 Washington D.C. — McMillan Plan (Burnham, ca. 1902) - McMillan Plan >> commissioned by the McMillan Commission; Burnham applied City Beautiful ideas to L'Enfant's 18th-c. Washington plan - Mall narrowed and monumentalised >> from L'Enfant's sweeping green alleys to a strict formal axis with water features flanking it - Cultural + museum buildings along the Mall (all neoclassical); Capitol Hill + White House as anchors of the axis - Schools added as small sub-centres (circles) throughout the city plan

Figure 3.3 summary: This is a historical urban planning map of a city, likely Washington D.C., featuring a grid street layout intersected by diagonal avenues. The map highlights various land use areas with green and orange shading, representing parks, public spaces, and specific districts, while numerous small circles are scattered throughout the street grid to denote specific locations or points of interest. A prominent river flows along the upper portion of the map, and topographical contours are visible on the right side, indicating hilly terrain.

3.4 Plan of Chicago (1909) — Burnham and Bennett

- Commissioned by the Commercial Club (alarmed industrialists, not politicians)

- Projected Chicago extending over a 95 kilometers radius

- Four main planning elements:

- Civic Centre >> where all mobility systems (rail, metro, road) converge; formal Beaux-Arts architecture; grand civic buildings stand out

- Mobility axes >> diagonal and radial avenues radiating from Civic Centre; ring roads

- Parks and parkways >> lakefront + river green spaces; every citizen within reach of a park - Grid >> rational underlying tissue for the rest of the city

- Architecture >> consistent city fabric; only Civic Centre elevated to Paris-level grandeur (parity with European capitals)

Figure 3.4 summary: A collage of urban planning illustrations featuring a conceptual reorganization of a city. It includes two topological maps showing a radiating network of red transit or road lines centered on a hub, a high-angle perspective drawing of a dense grid of rectangular buildings, an architectural rendering of a wide, central boulevard flanked by symmetrical buildings and greenery, and a street-level illustration of a crowded public square in front of a large neoclassical building.

4. Canberra: The City Beautiful Applied to a New Capital

- Australia >greater than 7 colonies (W.A, N.T, S.A, Queensland, N.S.W, Victoria, Tasmania) formed the Commonwealth in 1909

- Capital debate >> Melbourne versus Sydney implies neither won; Canberra chosen (indigenous land, approximately 160 kilometers from Sydney, selected 1908)

- Ambition (Minister of Home Affairs): 'rival London in population, Paris in beauty, Athens in culture, and Chicago in enterprise'

- International competition (1910) >> competition sent to Ottawa, Washington, Chicago, New York, London, Paris, South Africa; assessed by engineer + architect + surveyor in Australia - Participants included Eliel Saarinen (Finnish architect, did not win)

- Winners >> Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin:

- Marion Mahony >> first or second female M.I.T graduate (1894); worked at Frank Lloyd Wright's office; met Walter Griffin there

- Both lived in Chicago — deeply familiar with the City Beautiful movement

- Design approach >> City Beautiful + response to existing landscape features (mountains + river):

- Existing river turned into an artificial lake formation (Lake Burley Griffin) — geometrical and symmetrical near Civic Centre, freely shaped elsewhere

- Two topographic peaks as axis endpoints: Ainslie Peak and Bimberi Peak — defining the main civic axis

- Triangulated city figure: Capital Centre + Market Centre + Municipal Centre at triangle points

- On the main civic axis: executive power (Capitol, top of hill), legislative power (Parliament House), judiciary power (High Court)

- Parliament House inaugurated 1927 (years after competition); Canberra grew very slowly; considered a 'phantom city' for a long time; many ideas partially realised only

: A collection of three images related to the planning and layout of Canberra, the Australian Federal Capital. The top left is a black and white urban plan map detailing the city's structural sections, including the Parliamentary section and Market Center. The top right is a color topographic map showing the city's distribution across green hills and surrounding blue water bodies. The bottom area contains a schematic drawing by Griffin and Meholony illustrating the organizational hierarchy and spatial concepts of the capital, alongside a wide-angle landscape painting of the developed city valley.

5. Conclusion

- Parks Movement (Olmsted) >> causal link: designed nature improves health + social life; park as democratic commons; parkway as green connective tissue

- City Beautiful (Burnham) >> causal link: beautiful civic architecture reforms social behaviour; Beaux-Arts grandeur for cultural parity with Europe

- Both movements shared the Parkway as a connective element; both relied on the idea that improving the built environment improves society

- Key innovation >> Central Park: immersive green landscape within the densest city, layered mobility, distinct atmospheres; democratic, not aristocratic

- Key innovation >> Civic Centre: monumental, symmetrical, axial public space; institutional buildings as civic expression (Washington, Chicago, Canberra)

- Next lecture >> extension of historical European cities: Vienna, Amsterdam, New Delhi

1.10 --The Extension of the European City: Cerda, Sitte, Wagner, Berlage

1. Introduction: The Two Big Questions of the Late 19th Century

- Industrialisation + railroads >> rapid urbanisation in continental Europe

- Question 1: How to give mobility a place in the city? >> trains in old streets became problematic

Image summary: A collection of three black and white historical photographs depicting early railway infrastructure. The largest photo on the left shows a steam train moving through a cobblestone city street lined with multi-story buildings. The top center photo shows a railway bridge structure over water, and the top right and bottom center photos show ornate, arched entrances to a station labeled ENTREE. The bottom right photo shows curved railway tracks leading into a covered station platform.

- Paris metro >> underground network emerging at the surface (Hector Guimard's entrances)

- Big train stations >> Gare du Nord Paris as example; multi-modal exchange

- Question 2: Cities needed to extend beyond their fortifications >> fortification walls became obsolete in the 19th century

- Zone non aedificandi >> non-buildable zone around the walls (enemy had to be seen approaching); now opened up for development

1.1 Four Cities Facing the Same Two Questions

- Barcelona >> first extension (Barceloneta) already built: dense, little light, little air, unhygienic

- Vienna >> extensions driven by engineers: street next to street, block next to block, no urbanistic ideas

- Amsterdam >> fan-shaped canal plan; bastioned fortifications already partly turned into parks/industrial areas; extensions started without plan

- Old Delhi >> also a fortified city beginning to expand; question: how to extend?

2. Il defons Cerda: Towards a General Theory of

Urbanisation (Barcelona)

- First proposal for extension by Josep Mestres >> big perimeter blocks + parks + incorporating existing fabric; Cerda rejected this approach

- Cerda read topography + existing roads carefully >> radical plan: equal conditions for every citizen

- Equal conditions: equal access to green spaces and public functions throughout the city

2.1 The Manzana Block

- Example blocks called Manzanas >greater than 113 x 113 metres; never completely closed perimeter (at least 1 to 2 open sides)

- Open sides allow two adjacent blocks to share green space together >> forms elongated-O shape

- Each block combines housing at the edges + green space in the interior

- 45-degree chamfered corners >> facilitate mobility at crossings (carriages/trams can turn easily); also became billboards for architects

- Famous examples of chamfered corner architecture: Casa Mila by Antonio Gaudi; Francisco Figueras i Grassi

Image summary: A composite of four architectural and urban planning drawings for the Eixample district in Barcelona. The top left is a city map showing a geometric grid expansion adjacent to an existing urban center. The top right displays two elevation views of a neoclassical multi-story building facade. The bottom left is a detailed site plan of a residential block featuring chamfered corners and a central interior courtyard. The bottom right is a floor plan of a building surrounding a rectangular courtyard filled with vegetation.

2.2 Streets and Mobility

- Streets 20 metres wide >> pedestrian area + 10 m for carriages/trams + infrastructure (sewage, water, electricity)

- Crossings become mobility knots where various forms of mobility meet

: Image summary: A black and white architectural line drawing depicting a site plan for an urban space. The design features a central open plaza surrounded by symmetrical rows of trees and several underground cylindrical storage or utility structures connected by piping systems at the edges of the plot.

Figure 29 summary: A technical architectural diagram showing the layout, dimensions, and nomenclature of streets, blocks, and intersections. The diagram features a detailed overhead plan of a street intersection with designated areas for "Manzana 20-31" and "Manzana 30-31," including measurements for street widths and sidewalk clearances.

2.3 The Hierarchical System of Blocks

- 1 Manzana = base unit; 25 Manzanas = 1 Ward; 4 Wards = 1 District; 16 Wards = 1 Sector

- Mathematical system >> equally distributes schools, hospitals, cultural/administrative buildings through the city

2.4 Flexibility of the Grid

- Rigid yet flexible: blocks can be combined (4 blocks = factory site; 9 blocks = hospital site)

- Hospital de Sant Pau (9 blocks) >> pavilion hospital designed by Domenech i Montaner

- La Diagonal >> large diagonal cut through the grid; one of Barcelona's biggest streets today

- Cerda published a book on a general theory of urbanisation applicable to any city

2.5 Evolution and Decline

- Original open blocks gradually densified; perimeter fully closed; interior courtyards built up

- Equal access to green space became less real over time

- Recent movements: citizens' associations reclaiming interior green spaces and opening them to the public again

Image summary: A series of diagrams illustrating the hierarchical structure of a city, starting from a single block and expanding to a district, a sector, and an urban region. The top row shows a single block and a grid of twenty-five blocks. The middle section displays a district of four wards and a sector of sixteen wards. The lower section shows an urban region composed of three sectors, and a final diagram depicting the three sectors of the city, labeled as the three centers of the city.

Image summary: A historical map of an urban area featuring a dense grid of city blocks and streets, with a less structured, irregular cluster of buildings in the lower-left section. A small, modern satellite image inset in the bottom right shows a close-up aerial view of a similar urban grid.

Image summary: A three-panel composition featuring the architecture and urban layout of Barcelona. The left panel is a photograph of the Casa Milà, an ornate, undulating stone residential building with curved balconies. The center panel is an aerial view of the Palau Reial and surrounding structured building complexes. The right panel is a high-altitude aerial photograph showing the city's characteristic grid pattern of city blocks, known as the Eixample district.

3. Camillo Sitte: Artistic Principles for the Expanding

City (Vienna)

- Reaction against purely engineering-based city extension

- 1889: publishes 'Der Stadtebau nach seinen kunstlerischen Grundsatzen' (City Planning According to Artistic Principles)

- Look back at ancient examples: Pompeii forum, Piazza San Marco (Venice) >> how buildings + public spaces + monuments work together

- Further examples: Lucca, Vicenza >> qualitative, beautiful, agreeable city spaces

- Main focus: the relation between buildings, monuments, and public spaces as an artistic entity

- Vienna example: Votivkirche >> free-standing church on a big square; buildings + monument + public space working together

- Sitte was first and foremost a thinker, not a designer >> his designs not influential, but his thinking extremely influential until today

4. Otto Wagner: The Architecture of the

Grossstadt (Vienna)

: Image summary: A black and white architectural site plan depicting a central plaza and surrounding buildings. The map features a large open area labeled D, bordered by structures labeled A, G, and H, and lead to a dark, cross-shaped building at the top. Nearby streets are labeled Universitystrasse, Wahringer Strasse, Karl-Qu..., Kolin-Gasse, and Maria-Theresien-Str.

- Professor at the Vienna Academy; builds on Sitte's ideas but extends them

- Publishes'Moderne Architektur' and later'Die Grossstadt' (1911)

- Key concept: Grossstadt (metropolis) >> scale and character of the city are fundamentally changing

- The Ringstrasse >> zone of the old fortifications turned into monumental boulevard; scale only possible in a Grossstadt

- Big modern institutions along the Ringstrasse: banks, government, cultural buildings >> new monumentality

Image summary: A side-by-side comparison featuring a black-and-white architectural sketch on the left and a color photograph on the right of a large, ornate neoclassical building. Both images show the building's facade with multiple rows of windows and columns, though the sketch provides a wider perspective including a tree-lined street leading toward the structure, while the photograph focuses on the central entrance and the roofline adorned with a large eagle sculpture and flags.

4.1 Wagner and Mobility: The Stadtbahn

- Wiener Stadtbahn >> urban rail network connecting the extended city (not just underground --partially elevated)

- Two types of transport: Stadtbahn (rail) + ground transport (trams, carriages)

- Stellen >> nodes where Stadtbahn and ground transport cross one another

- New monuments of mobility in the Grossstadt

- Materials: natural stone + iron/cast iron

- Include shops, gathering spaces, places for city maintenance workers

- Architecturally celebrated: pilasters, crowns, grand pavilions

- River crossing: Ferdinandsbrucke >> Wagner designed bridges over the Danube as Stadtbahn + road + water crossings

- Pumping station + cays (quays) along the Danube >> designed by Wagner, not engineers; infrastructure as urban design

- Metro station entrances >> beautiful pavilions; entering the Stadtbahn as a civic experience

- Key contribution: infrastructure belongs to the realm of architecture and urban design, not just engineering

Image summary: Two side-by-side historical maps of Vienna (Wien). The left map is a detailed black and white street map showing urban density and infrastructure. The right map is a colored plan attributed to Carl Lobe, highlighting the division of the city into numbered municipal districts (Gemeinde-Bezirk), denoted by Roman numerals such as IV, VI, VII, and XII.

Image summary: A two-part architectural presentation for EMMEINDE-BEZIRN. The left side is a line drawing perspective of an urban plaza featuring tiered terraces, a wide staircase, and surrounding multi-story buildings. The right side is a corresponding urban plan showing a dense, symmetrical grid of blocks arranged around a central axis with a series of small, regularly spaced courtyards or plazas throughout the district.

4.2 Wagner and Housing: Bezirke

- Bezirke (districts) >> new extensions for the Grossstadt; approximately 150,000 people, 30,000 dwellings each

- Block structure; 7-storey perimeter blocks; major and minor public spaces at regular distances

- 10-minute / 15-minute city >> ideas already fully present in Wagner (and Cerda); public provisions at walking distance

- Very integrated view: mobility + public space + housing + infrastructure all designed as one

5. Hendrik Petrus Berlage: Amsterdam Zuid and the New Scale (Amsterdam)

- Amsterdam 1850: 230,000 inhabitants >greater than 1900: 528,000 (driven by colonial trade + industrialisation)

- Berlage trained at E.T.H Zurich; references: Vienna (Ringstrasse) + Paris (Haussmann boulevards)

- 'The housing problem can only be resolved by mass production --at a larger scale than previously'

- Beurs van Berlage (Stock Exchange) >> designed by Berlage close to historical city, introducing new scale

- Amsterdam Central Station (C.S) >> designed by Cuypers (also designed Rijksmuseum)

- Magazine 'Wendingen' (= Turmoil) >> discusses how to move from historical to new city

>'Image summary: A four-panel collage comparing an actual urban area with historical planning documents. The top-left panel is a photograph of a dense city block featuring a large red-brick building with multiple gable roofs. The top-right panel is a 1915 urban plan by HP Berlage, depicting a grid of red buildings and green spaces. The bottom two panels show detailed, three-dimensional architectural models of the proposed city layout, also attributed to HP Berlage from 1915, showing rows of uniform buildings and street arrangements.'

5.1 Amsterdam Zuid Plan

- Amsterdam Zuid (South) >> two parts: one connecting to historical city, one connecting to 19th-century extensions

- Bifurcated form; introduces new scale of collectivity into the city

- Bird's eye perspective drawings by Berlage >> communicate the ambition of a new urban scale

5.2 The Amsterdam School (Housing Cooperatives)

- Parastatal housing cooperatives (like those in Zurich today) >> build large plots due to housing shortage

- Spandammerbuurt >> designed by Michel de Klerk; key example of Amsterdam School housing block

- Characteristics of Amsterdam School blocks:

- Collective scale: whole facade unified; entire square designed as one entity

- Individuality: articulate entrances, balconies, protruding elements

- Gallery stairs + compact housing with minimal circulation

- Collective provisions at urban design corners: shops, washhouses, kindergartens, post offices

- Architecture always mediates between collectivity and individuality

- Anonymity of the Grossstadt versus individual identity >> architecture negotiates both simultaneously

- Berlage's open perimeter blocks >> play with private/public/collective definitions; interiors semi-public

- Bridges also designed architecturally (not just engineered), like in Vienna

- Connections to the existing city

- High-rise appears in Amsterdam Zuid >> very early for Europe; 1926 realised; crown on the main axis

: An aerial photograph and a corresponding architectural line drawing of a city block. The top photograph shows an overhead view of urban buildings and a green park area. The bottom drawing is a site plan dated "de Kierk, 1913," showing the layout of the same area with building footprints and street labels, including "Uytgeeststraat" and "Zandstraat."

: Architectural drawings by Michel de Klerk from 1917-18 showing cross sections, floor plans, and rear elevations of a building.

Image summary: An architectural site plan titled REVISIE WONINGBOUW EIGENNAARD in SAANSTRAATEN, AMSTERDAM, dated 2 CHARL 1905. The line drawing depicts a residential block layout with buildings framing three sides of a central open courtyard, featuring detailed floor plans of individual housing units and labels for street alignments.

Image summary: A black and white architectural site plan or map of a city layout, featuring symmetrical blocks of buildings and streets. Red rectangles are superimposed on the plan, highlighting three specific areas: one square section on the left and two rectangular sections in the center.

Image summary: An isometric architectural 3D model of a multi-story brick building complex arranged in a U-shaped layout around a central open courtyard. The complex features red-orange walls, flat roofs, and a prominent pointed tower or spire at the far end of the courtyard.

Image summary: An aerial photograph of a dense urban residential area featuring long, multi-story apartment blocks arranged in a structured, geometric layout. The buildings are interspersed with patches of green space, trees, and a network of narrow streets.

6. Eliel Saarinen: Turning the Town into the Metropole (Helsinki)

- Eliel Saarinen >> father of Eero Saarinen (who designed the T.W.A Terminal at J.F.K, New York, now a hotel)

- Helsinki was still a relatively small town at the beginning of the 20th century

- Question for Helsinki: how to design the Grossstadt at the level of buildings and public space?

: A historical city plan for Stor-Helsingfors from 1918 by Eliel Saarinen, depicting an urban layout of Helsinki, Finland. The map uses orange shading to indicate built-up urban areas, white for roads and infrastructure, and green for parks and open spaces, all set against the coastal geography of the city's harbors and surrounding islands.

Image summary: A vintage urban planning map of a city district, depicting a dense network of streets, blocks, and public parks. The map features a variety of zoning colors, including light brown for building areas, green for greenery and parks, and grey for primary roads. The layout is characterized by a mix of organic, curving streets and planned geometric sections, including a prominent circular plaza in the upper half and several radiating road patterns.

Image summary: An architectural site plan titled Munkkiniemi, illustrating a residential layout consisting of rows of identical houses with attached gardens. The dwellings are organized into several rectangular blocks, surrounding a central large building with a wide, curved open space and perimeter landscaping.

STOR-HELSINGFORS own into the Metropole N

;// Figure 6.1 summary: This is a 3D digital rendering of an urban layout from 1915, depicting a dense grid of building blocks and streets interspersed with wooded areas, viewed from a high-angle perspective.

6.1 Munkkiniemi-Haaga Extension

-1915

- Formal public spaces: large squares, green, monuments

- Neighbourhood-scale semi-public spaces: intimate, like closes in a Garden City

- Dense perimeter blocks + semi-detached/row houses with own gardens >> more diversified than Vienna or Amsterdam

- Combines models from previous lectures (Garden City + Grossstadt) into one plan

Image summary: A three-part architectural presentation featuring a site plan and two perspective drawings of a large civic complex. The site plan on the left shows a curved U-shaped arrangement of buildings surrounding a central open plaza. The center and right drawings are sketches of the building's facade, characterized by a monumental central arched entrance and a tall clock tower on the right wing, with figures of people in the foreground to indicate the massive scale of the structures.

- Munkkiniemi-Haaga >> new extension area in Helsinki; combines multiple housing typologies

6.2 Helsinki Central Station

- Major civic monument of the Grossstadt; designed by Eliel Saarinen

- Station = new urban figure; signalises the idea of a bigger modern city

- Relates to Helsinki's own scale and character --not Paris or Berlin, but distinctly modern

7. New Delhi: Expanding the Colonial City (Edwin

Lutyens, 1912)

- Edwin Lutyens (British) >> think about extension of Delhi; already seen in Lecture 1.08 (Hampstead Garden Suburb)

- Old walled city remained; existing extensions already present; new red areas = Lutyens' plan

- System of axes at 30 degrees or 45 degrees; central main axis with palace of the Viceroy

- Deals with mobility (fast travel through wide roads) and represents colonial political power

7.1 Topography and Power

- Rashtrapati Bhavan (Viceroy's Palace) >> on the topographically highest point

- Secretariats >> halfway along the axis

- India Gate >> at the lower end of the axis

- Topography used not for the benefit of the people but to represent colonial power

- Railway station = start of the road system; commercial centre >> political centre >> religious centre (European) along axis

7.2 Colonial Segregation in the Plan

- Extension not for the crowded Indian population in the historical city

- Stand-alone villa-type plots for British colonial administrators and traders

- Denser compact typologies only for staff serving the Europeans

- Urban design is not neutral >> engages with political and geopolitical conditions

- Same problems (mobility + extension) as Vienna/Amsterdam/Barcelona --completely different approach and for whom

8. Conclusion: The European City Extension in the Late

19th / Early 20th Century

- Four different responses to the same challenge (mobility + extension):

- Cerda (Barcelona) >> mathematical equality, flexible grid as universal tool, blocks as social equaliser

- Sitte (Vienna) >> artistic composition; buildings, monuments, public spaces as artistic entities

- Wagner (Vienna) >> infrastructure = architecture; mobility network as skeleton of new Grossstadt

- Berlage (Amsterdam) >> mass production of housing; collective block mediating individual and community

- Path dependency >> we cannot understand 21st-century Paris, Vienna, Amsterdam, Delhi without knowing this history

- All four remain central references in contemporary urban design practice

;// Image summary: A composite of two maps of New Delhi. The top map is a regional plan showing the "Imperial Delhi" area highlighted in red, situated south of the Old Delhi city blocks and west of the Jumna River. The bottom map is a detailed architectural site plan of the central government district, featuring symmetrical grids of buildings, gardens, and large circular plazas along a central axis that leads to the Great Place.

Image summary: A black and white urban plan diagram of New Delhi, created by Edwin Lutyens between 1912 and 1930. The map illustrates a radial city layout with key landmarks including the Railway Station, Old City, City Extension Area, the Ridge preserved for wild animals, and a river to the east. Central features include the Court, Great Place, Gov't House, a Cathedral, and various parks, all connected by a network of intersecting diagonal and perpendicular roads.

Image summary: A minimalist line drawing silhouette of the New Delhi skyline featuring three key landmarks. From left to right, the labels identify the Rashtrapati Bhavan, the Secretariat, and India Gate.

Image summary: An architectural floor plan of Rashtrapati Bhawan, formerly known as Viceroy's House, designed by Edwin Lutyens. The diagram displays a symmetrical layout featuring a central rectangular courtyard surrounded by a complex grid of rooms and corridors, extending into a larger courtyard area and ending in a circular entrance plaza with radiating pathways.

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