Anthropology and Sociology

On the other hand, University of North Carolina, College of Arts and Sciences defined sociology as an exciting and enlightening field of study which analyzes and explains important issues in our personal lives, our societies and the world. Sociology, on a personal level, examines the social causes and effects of issues like intimate relationships, gender and racial identity, family strife, deviant behavior, aging, and religious beliefs. Sociology explores and discusses topics such as crime and law, poverty and wealth, racism and discrimination, education and academies, business companies, urban culture and social activities on a global basis.

Sociology explores phenomena such as population growth and migration, war and peace, and economic development on a global level. In order to improve and enrich our understanding of key social processes, sociologists emphasize the careful compilation and review of evidence about social living (Behavioral Science and Human Services, Kansas Wesleyan University).

Anthropology

What is Anthropology?

Anthropology is the systematic study of humans, with the goal of knowing our evolutionary origins, our distinctive nature as a species, and the vast diversity of our modes of social life in the world and over time. (University of California). Anthropologists research in different times and locations the meaning of culture and its relevance to human life. They are researching other cultures to get our own better perspectives. They research the past to assist with understanding of the present. Anthropologists also research our ancient history and human origins, especially through the archaeology subfield, which recovers material and physical remains and analyzes them (Department of Sociology and Anthropology, The University of Mississippi).

On the other hand, University of North Carolina, College of Arts and Sciences defined sociology as an exciting and enlightening field of study which analyzes and explains important issues in our personal lives, our societies and the world. Sociology, on a personal level, examines the social causes and effects of issues like intimate relationships, gender and racial identity, family strife, deviant behavior, aging, and religious beliefs. Sociology explores and discusses topics such as crime and law, poverty and wealth, racism and discrimination, education and academies, business companies, urban culture and social activities on a global basis.

Sociology explores phenomena such as population growth and migration, war and peace, and economic development on a global level. In order to improve and enrich our understanding of key social processes, sociologists emphasize the careful compilation and review of evidence about social living (Behavioral Science and Human Services, Kansas Wesleyan University).

Anthropology

What is Anthropology?

Anthropology is the systematic study of humans, with the goal of knowing our evolutionary origins, our distinctive nature as a species, and the vast diversity of our modes of social life in the world and over time. (University of California). Anthropologists research in different times and locations the meaning of culture and its relevance to human life. They are researching other cultures to get our own better perspectives. They research the past to assist with understanding of the present. Anthropologists also research our ancient history and human origins, especially through the archaeology subfield, which recovers material and physical remains and analyzes them (Department of Sociology and Anthropology, The University of Mississippi).

Sociocultural Anthropology

Sociocultural anthropologists analyze the nature of individual cultures, describe differences between cultures, and study cultural change and social transformation processes.

Sociocultural anthropologists have a strong interest in diversity and variability between cultures, thereby exploring the principles of cultural relativism and universalism.

The basis of sociocultural anthropology lies in the notion that people adapt to their surroundings in distinct ways, leading to the emergence and evolution of various cultures over time. Sociocultural relativism holds that every culture holds its own relative value and significance, standing in contrast to earlier notions of cultural evolution. The concept of sociocultural evolution, which suggests that all societies progress through a linear path from barbarism to modern European civilization, has been discredited and dismissed by contemporary anthropologists as a result of its biased nature.

Biological Anthropology

According to the University of California - Davis, biological anthropologists investigate a range of topics related to human evolutionary biology. This can include analyzing fossils to gain insights into the history of human evolution, comparing the physical and physiological adaptations of contemporary humans to their environments, and studying the behavior of nonhuman primates, such as monkeys and apes, to better understand the origins of human behavior.

Linguistic Anthropology

The University of California - Davis has defined linguistic anthropology as a field that is concerned with the study of language as a cultural resource and the act of speaking as a cultural practice. As an integral part of human identity, language is a focal point of inquiry for linguistic anthropologists. They investigate language and its usage in order to gain a better understanding of the underlying culture.

These scholars also examine the distribution of languages across the world, their relationships with one another both historically and in the present day, and the reasons for variations in language usage, such as pronunciation differences between regions. Additionally, linguistic anthropologists are increasingly involved in addressing practical issues related to language and culture, and their research is valuable in informing program development, policy formation, and solutions to everyday language-related challenges.

Archaeology

The University of California - Davis explains that archaeologists are concerned with the study of material remains from past and present cultural systems in order to gain insights into the technical, social, and political organization of these systems, as well as the larger process of cultural evolution that gave rise to them. Archaeology involves the reconstruction of extinct cultures through the analysis of artifacts - the physical objects that were created, used, and left behind by humans. Artifacts can take many forms, from clothing and computers to buildings and bones. By examining artifacts, archaeologists are able to develop a model of what a particular culture may have been like. They search for patterns in the artifacts to gain insights into the ways in which people lived, including changes in technology, skill, design, and other cultural practices over time. For example, variations in pottery production methods in the southwestern United States can reveal information about how people used pottery, their level of skill, and the influence of technological advancements on their culture.

The Self in Anthropological View

In anthropological view, the self is also seen as a social construct, shaped by cultural and societal norms and values. However, anthropologists may also consider the self as a product of individual experiences and interactions with the environment, including interactions with other people and the natural world. The self is viewed as a complex and multi-dimensional aspect of human identity that is shaped by a range of cultural, historical, and personal factors.

Ask Yourself!

How can the study of anthropology challenge or reinforce our preconceived notions about our own culture and its impact on shaping our sense of self?

The Self and Person in Contemporary Anthropology

“Person” or personhood is a bundle of roles, norms of behavior, expectations, responsibilities, obligations that situate a human being in social life. This bundle of roles, rules, responsibilities, obligations, etc, are “defined” by specific cultural criteria and principles that are primarily related to gender, sexuality, age, class, birth order, and other kinship identities, as well as other identifications such as class and division of labor. Thus a person is the way a human fulfills, enacts, negotiates, or struggles with the diverse ways in which they are also a person defined by social, legal, moral, economic, and political institutions.

"Self" is a dynamic process by which a human experiences and identifies his specificity as a human in tension with being a person. The self is an identification that negotiates the tension/opposition between being a person and being unique human. This uniqueness is formulated differently in different cultures— it could be in terms of"self" as consciousness, as soul, as mind (opposed to body), as a unity of soul-spirit-body, as a unity between oneself and another, as synonymous with personhood, as opposite of the ways they are a person.

Harter's summary of self-representation development from early childhood through adolescence.

Table summary: The development of self-concept evolves from early childhood to adolescence, moving from simple observable traits to complex psychological abstractions. In early childhood, content consists of observable physical characteristics, behaviors, and preferences, with little coherence in organization. By middle childhood, content shifts to trait labels focusing on abilities, interpersonal characteristics, and emotional attributes, organized logically within differentiated domains. In adolescence, content becomes abstractions about the self involving psychological constructs and various roles, with the ability to construct a formal, internally consistent theory of the self across all domains.

: Table summary: A comparison of self-concept development across two stages. In the first stage, stability over time is characterized by the recognition of and interest in the continuity of self-attributes, while the basis of this stage is dominated by fantasies and wishes. In the second stage, stability over time involves intrapsychic conflict and confusion over contradictions and instability, with a focus on creating an integrated identity, and the basis shifts to using social comparison to evaluate the self in relation to others.

Views on Self-Representation

Self-representation refers to the way in which an individual perceives and interprets their own image. This concept is closely tied to the ego, which is thought to be a distinct, real, and unchanging entity shaped by an individual's unique history and patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. (Racamier). According to McDermott (n.d.), self-representation is an essential aspect of the ego, providing a particularized understanding of an individual's identity and subjective experience.

The first definition of self that Ewing considers is one she characterizes as the most general, and ordinary, everyday, sense of the word. In this sense, she says, “self” encompasses the physical organism, all aspects of psychological functioning, and social attributes'.

According to Meijl (2008) in his research entitled"Culture and Identity in Anthropology", Ewing tried to show how individual selves throughout the world continuously reconstitute themselves into new selves in response to internal and external stimuli. In her view individuals construct these new selves from an available set of self-representations, that are highly dependent on context and mutually inconsistent. According to Ewing, the self is generally not aware of these shifts in self-representation, which do not therefore thwart individual experiences of wholeness and continuity.

The shifting selves can only be observed by others, who are generally also unable to identify an overarching, cohesive self. In Ewing's perspective this implies that the experience of personal continuity and wholeness by self is illusory.

For Ewing (1990: 255), it is this second definition, the self as self-representation, that is the anthropologically relevant one:'Since anthropologists are talking about symbols, otherwise known as"collective representations", she says,'the culturally shaped"self" that is the object of anthropological study can most clearly be understood in this sense, that of self-representation'.

The process of self-representation begins in early infancy, as individuals become aware of their distinct physical existence separate from others. This process continues throughout adulthood, and is subject to change as individuals develop cognitively and socially. Given that self-representation is shaped by both cognitive and social factors, alterations in an individual's self-representation can occur over time. Susan Harter, a psychologist, has conducted influential research on the development of self-representation across the lifespan.

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Harter's summary of self-representation development from early childhood through adolescence In the latter part of the twentieth century, scholars began to posit that the self is a product of both cognitive and social processes. From a cognitive standpoint, one's self-representation shapes how they interpret and give significance to their experiences. Psychologist Ulric Neisser differentiated between one's self-representation derived from their direct perception of experiences and that arising from their reflection on those experiences.

The former comprises the "ecological self," which pertains to how one perceives themselves in relation to the physical environment, and the "interpersonal self," which pertains to how one perceives themselves in relation to others through verbal or nonverbal communication. According to Neisser, these two types of self-representation develop early in infancy. In contrast, reflections on one's experiences give rise to three additional types of self-representation.

that emerge in later infancy and childhood with cognitive and social development. The “extended self” is based on memories of past experiences and expectations for the future, while the “private self” arises from the understanding that one's experiences are not directly perceived by others and must be communicated to be shared. Finally, the “conceptual self” is one's overarching theory or schema of oneself based on reflection on experiences within social and cultural contexts and corresponds to terms like self-concept and self-schema.

Attachment theory highlights how the social construction of the self can have an impact on self-esteem and how interpersonal relationships can shape one's self-representation. Psychologist John Bowlby's research emphasized the caregiver-child relationship, where children who are securely attached tend to feel safe in their environment and are more likely to explore actively. Secure attachment to a consistent caregiver helps children develop a positive self-image and a sense of being valued and loved. On the other hand, insecure attachment may lead to feelings of unworthiness, anxiety, and distress, resulting in low self-esteem due to the lack of confidence in the caregiver's protection.

Besides cognitive and social maturation, alterations in one's social environment may also significantly affect self-representation. For instance, Susan Cross notes in her work"Self-construals, Coping, and Stress in Cross-cultural Adaptation" that cultural values can impact self-development. As individuals transition from one cultural context to another, such as from an Eastern to a Western culture, changes in self-representation may occur. People can acquire a self-representation that encompasses multiple cultures, as per the International Encyclopedia of the Social.

Neurobiologists have been uncovering more information about what neuroscientist Joseph LeDoux refers to as the"synaptic self." These new discoveries about how the brain structures selfhood expand our comprehension of it and our ability to explain how it affects human emotions, drive, and behavior, as noted by Quinn (2014).

In his article “The Self and the Brain,” asserted that the specific aspects of oneself that define their identity are exclusively present in their brain. For an individual to remain themselves over time, their brain must preserve the essence of who they are. Memory plays a crucial role in comprehending the neural mechanisms of the self.

Although memory conventionally refers to the conscious recollection of past events, the current perspective is that memory is stored by systems that function both explicitly (consciously) and implicitly (unconsciously). The self is, therefore; a complicated collection of implicit and explicit memories.

When intentionally attempting to recollect information, such as a formula for a statistics class or a list of dates for a history class, this information is stored in explicit memory. People utilize explicit memories daily, from recalling information for a test to remembering the date and time of a medical appointment. Explicit memory is also referred to as declarative memory since individuals can consciously retrieve and articulate the information.

Types of Explicit Memory

Episodic memory refers to an individual's long-term recollections of specific events, such as their high school graduation or what they did yesterday. On the other hand, semantic memory comprises memories of general knowledge, facts, names, concepts, and so on.

Implicit memory, in contrast, pertains to things that people do not deliberately try to remember. It is unintentional and unconscious. Implicit memory is sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory since individuals cannot consciously bring it to their awareness. While explicit memories are conscious and can be verbally explained, implicit memories are typically non-conscious and not verbally articulated.

Implicit memories often involve procedural knowledge of step-by-step processes that must be followed to complete a task. For example, the ability to swing a baseball bat or make toast is a procedural memory that doesn't require conscious recollection. Even though implicit memories are not consciously recalled, they still impact behavior and one's understanding of various tasks, as per Cherry (2019).

Image summary: A diagram titled "Independent View of Self" featuring a large central oval labeled "Self" surrounded by smaller ovals labeled "Mother", "Father", "Sibling", "Co-worker", and "Friend". The central "Self" oval contains the highest density of X marks, while the surrounding relationship ovals contain fewer X marks. This depicts a psychological model where the individual's own identity is more prominent and distinct than their connections to others.

Image summary: A diagram titled "Independent View of Self" depicting a central "Self" circle surrounded by smaller circles representing others, such as Mother, Father, Sibling, Co-worker, and Friends. The "Self" circle contains significantly more X marks than any of the surrounding circles, illustrating that in an independent view, the individual's own attributes are more prominent than those of their social relationships.

Figure B summary: A diagram illustrating an interdependent view of self, depicting the Self at the center surrounded by overlapping circles representing Mother, Father, Sibling, Co-worker, and Friends. The Self is not contained within a single boundary but is connected to and shares elements with these other social roles. The point is that in an interdependent view, the self is defined by its relationships and connections to others.

Ask Yourself!

How does the way individuals represent themselves to others, such as through their behavior, language, and appearance, impact their own self-concept and self-esteem?

The Self Embedded in Culture

, cultural anthropologist and lecturer at The University of Colorado at Denver said that every culture has a kind of body of knowledge, a sphere of experience from which it passes on information, morals, values, beliefs and possibilities. It is the frame for what every individual raised in that culture will start with. This is known in anthropology as"enculturation." Every culture has a series of past events they focus on (usually making them look like a hero, but not always), they have a political system they idealize and an economic sphere in which they make sure their people are fed and housed.

You as a person are born into this system. You inherit both the good and bad of that system and depending on your particular conditions (gender/skin color/ access to wealth/ ect) your life as an individual will be governed, in large part by the cultural sphere in which you are raised. You are not totally limited by that sphere, but unless you step outside it and explore other ways of thinking or experiencing the world, you will be more of a product of that system, than an individual. Most of us make very few actual choices in our life. Most of us simply react to our cultural programming and external stimuli.

The concept of self-construal is about how individuals define and think about themselves and their relationship with the world around them. People may have either an independent or interdependent self-construal, which reflects different ways of representing the self. An independent self-construal emphasizes internal characteristics such as personality traits, abilities, and preferences, which create a unique profile of the individual.

On the other hand, an interdependent self-construal centers around close relationships, social roles, and group memberships. The emphasis is on connectedness and harmony with others, rather than standing out as an individual. Research has shown that the way people construe themselves has a significant impact on their thoughts and actions.

When people think of themselves in an interdependent way, they tend to focus on their roles in relationships and important group memberships. They might think, "I'm Nancy's best friend," or "I'm the youngest son in my family." This way of viewing the self places an emphasis on relationships and groups, and thus the self is seen as embedded within the larger social world. It is interesting to note that this social way of thinking about the self has been found to have an impact on various values, emotions, and social behaviors.

Does Culture Affect our Personality?

Broadly speaking, culture encompasses shared values, beliefs, and norms within a specific group of people, and it has a profound influence on how we learn, live, and behave. Many theorists argue that culture is a critical determinant of personality, and one of the general assumptions is that individuals who grow up in the same culture exhibit similar personality traits. Franz Boas, a pioneer in Psychological Anthropology, posited that personality is acquired through culture rather than biology, and his theory of Cultural Relativism offers a comprehensive understanding of the complex relationship between culture and personality.

One of Boas' students, Ruth Benedict, expanded on the research exploring the effect of culture on personality by examining various cultural patterns and themes. While she acknowledged that cultural patterns in modern societies are challenging to trace due to global cultural diffusion, Benedict found that primitive societies in remote areas have preserved their shared personalities through their values, beliefs, and rituals. In her book, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture, she described Japanese beliefs and value systems in detail and hypothesized about the reasons behind the actions of the Japanese during World War 2. She also compared the cultural patterns of two different northern American Indian groups and an Indian group located off the coast of Papua New Guinea and discovered significant differences in their respective value systems, such as their definitions of a "good man."

Margaret Mead is widely regarded as one of the most prominent anthropologists of the 20th century. As a student of Boas, she expanded on the school's knowledge of culture and personality by shifting her focus from American culture to the entire Western world. Her travels to Samoa revealed that the societies there shared common personality traits due to uniform value systems. Mead noted that in Samoan culture, children were ignored by their parents and the rest of society until they reached puberty and were subjected to marital rituals. This lack of attention and love from significant others resulted in children either becoming aggressive to gain attention or passive.

Differences in personality traits based on biological sex are thought to be influenced by evolution and genetics, as explained by the Theory of Sexual Selection, where men are more likely to be aggressive and competitive to attract females. However, recent trends show that more women are becoming aggressive in competing against other women for a man. Culture plays a significant role in shaping our beliefs and values, which ultimately contribute to the development of our personality. Cultural psychologists and social anthropologists believe that culture has a profound impact on one's personality.

Cultural relativism

Cultural relativism involves comprehending a culture according to its own values and customs rather than evaluating it through the lens of one's own cultural standards. Its objective is to foster comprehension of cultural practices that differ from one's own. Adhering to the principles of cultural relativism results in the recognition that no culture is inherently superior to another in terms of its systems of morality, law, politics, etcetera This concept is rooted in the belief that cultural norms and values derive their significance within a specific social context.

Additionally, it is based on the idea that there is no universal standard of good or evil, and therefore each society makes its own decisions about what is right or wrong. The concept of cultural relativism also implies that opinions on ethics are shaped by an individual's cultural perspective. In summary, there is no definitive or erroneous ethical system. Cultural relativism aims to promote comprehension of unfamiliar cultural practices, such as insect consumption, genocide, or genital mutilation.

Cultural relativism can be classified into two distinct categories:

1. Absolute: This category maintains that everything occurring within a culture is beyond questioning and should not be challenged by outsiders. An extreme example of absolute cultural relativism is the Nazi party's belief that the Holocaust was justified.

2. Critical: This category involves questioning cultural practices and understanding who accepts them and why. Critical cultural relativism also acknowledges the presence of power dynamics in cultural practices.

In China, foot binding was a cultural practice where the feet were deliberately stunted and reshaped to make them smaller, which was seen as a symbol of beauty and status. The process started when girls were between four and seven years old, and involved tightly binding the feet with a ten-foot bandage, causing the toes to curl under the foot and the foot to bow. Despite being banned in 1912, women continued with the practice because it was the only way to marry into wealth and because small feet were considered beautiful. Although Western cultures may view foot binding as torturous, it has been deeply ingrained in Chinese culture as a symbol of beauty for centuries, illustrating the concept of cultural relativism (Lumen Learning, n.d.).

Ask Yourself!

How does the principle of cultural relativism challenge the idea of universal human rights, and how can we reconcile the two in a culturally diverse world?

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