Parmar Ssc Fat Man

Parmar Sir

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G.K/GS Theory Book

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S.S.C G.K = Parmar S.S.C

01

Geography

Ancient History

Medieval History

Modern History

Polity

Economics

Table: Columns: 1., Basics of economy, 248 to 250. Row 1. 1.: 2.. Basics of economy: Microeconomics. 248 to 250: 251 to 256. Row 2. 1.: 3.. Basics of economy: National income. 248 to 250: 257 to 260. Row 3. 1.: 4.. Basics of economy: Budget and taxation. 248 to 250: 261 to 265. Row 4. 1.: 5.. Basics of economy: Inflation and unemployment. 248 to 250: 266 to 269. Row 5. 1.: 6.. Basics of economy: Banking: part 1. 248 to 250: 270 to 273. Row 6. 1.: 7.. Basics of economy: Monetary policy. 248 to 250: 274 to 275. Row 7. 1.: 8.. Basics of economy: Banking: part 2. 248 to 250: 276 to 279. Row 8. 1.: 9.. Basics of economy: Poverty and balance of payment. 248 to 250: 280 to 285. Row 9. 1.: 10.. Basics of economy: Five year plan and industrial policy resolution. 248 to 250: 286 to 291. Row 10. 1.: 11.. Basics of economy: Indices, reports, international institutions & key economic concepts. 248 to 250: 292 to 294.

Physics

Table: Columns: 1., Motion, 295 to 297. Row 1. 1.: 2.. Motion: Force and laws of motion. 295 to 297: 298 to 300. Row 2. 1.: 3.. Motion: Gravitation and work done. 295 to 297: 301 to 304. Row 3. 1.: 4.. Motion: Sound. 295 to 297: 305 to 307. Row 4. 1.: 5.. Motion: Reflection and refraction. 295 to 297: 308 to 313. Row 5. 1.: 6.. Motion: Human eye and vision. 295 to 297: 314 to 317. Row 6. 1.: 7.. Motion: Electricity. 295 to 297: 318 to 321. Row 7. 1.: 8.. Motion: Magnetic effect of electric current. 295 to 297: 322 to 324.

Chemistry

2. Atom and its Structure 331 to 335

Biology

Environment

Static G.K

Geography

: Image summary: A hierarchical flow chart mapping out a curriculum of astronomical and geographical topics. It starts with the Solar System and branches down through Earth's interior, geomorphology, the atmosphere, wind and ocean currents, and concludes with the specific geography of India, including the Himalayas and Peninsular Plateaus. The diagram serves as a structured outline of earth and space science topics, moving from the cosmic scale down to regional geography.

: Image summary: A hierarchical flow chart mapping the organization of geography topics. It begins with broad categories like Northern Plains and Islands and descends through specific themes including river systems, monsoons, forest and grassland, soil and agriculture, minerals, world maps, human geography, and transport. The diagram serves as a structured curriculum or index to organize the study of physical and human geography.

• Study of Universe is known as: Cosmology.

Universe consists of many Galaxies, a galaxy in turn consists of many solar systems.

• Branch of science that deals with celestial bodies: Astronomy.

Origin of Universe

• Various theories have been given on how the universe came into existence.

Big Bang Theory

Big Bang was an explosion of concentrated matter in the universe that occurred 13.8 billion years ago, leading to the formation of galaxies of stars and other heavenly bodies.

• Origin of Big Bang Theory (also known as Big Bang Explosion) was given by Georges Lemaître in 1927 and published in 1931.

Image summary: A diagram depicting the timeline of the universe as a widening cone, moving from left to right along a time axis. It traces the progression from an infinitely hot and dense single point at the Big Bang, through the dark ages and the appearance of the first stars and early galaxies, to the formation of the Solar System and the presence of modern galaxies today. The expanding shape of the cone illustrates the accelerated expansion of the universe over time.

Edwin Hubble Theory - (1929)

• Edwin Hubble proposed the expanding universe hypothesis, demonstrating that distant galaxies are moving away from Earth with velocities proportional to their distances (now known as Hubble's Law), which provided the first strong observational evidence that the universe is continuously expanding.

Steady State Theory - (1948)

• It was given by Fred Hoyle, Hermann Bondi, and Thomas Gold.

• This theory proposes that the universe is constantly expanding, but its average properties remain unchanged.

{Galaxy}

- A galaxy is a massive collection of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter held together by gravity.

• Our galaxy is Milky Way Galaxy (or the Akash Ganga/Mandakini) formed after the Big Bang.

• Andromeda/M-31 is the nearest galaxy to the Milky Way.

Our solar system lies in the Orion Spur, a small spiral arm of the Milky Way located between the Sagittarius and Perseus arms.

Origin of Solar System

• The formation of Solar System began 4.6 Billion years ago, while the age of Earth is 4.5 Billion years old.

Theories related to the origin of solar system

1. {Copernicus Theory} :

• De revolutionibus orbium coelestium is the Heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus, given in 1543.

• It predicted that the Sun is at the centre of the universe, with the Earth and other planets orbiting around it.

2. {Nebular Hypothesis} :

• First proposed by Immanuel Kant in 1755 and independently expanded upon by Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1796.

• The process started when a cloud of gas and dust collapsed, forming a spinning disk called the solar Nebula.

• Gravity pulled material to the center, forming the Sun, while the rest flattened into a spinning disk. Dust and gas clumped into planetesimals, which merged to form planets. The Sun formed in the center, and the planets formed in a thin disk orbiting around it to It is the most widely accepted hypothesis.

3. {Planetesimal Theory} :

• Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin and Forest Ray Moulton concluded (in 1905) that a passing star came close to the Sun and, due to its gravitational attraction, a portion of the Sun's matter was drawn out.

This matter gradually cooled and combined to form the planets.

4. {Binary Star Hypothesis} :

• It was proposed by H.N. Russell in 1937.

• The Binary Star Hypothesis proposes that Earth and the other planets formed from debris left behind when the Sun's companion star exploded, with the material eventually coalescing into planets.

Image summary: A diagram of the solar system depicting the Sun and the relative positions of the planets, moons, asteroids, and dwarf planets. It shows the layout from the Sun outward, through the inner planets, the asteroid belt, the gas giants, and the Kuiper belt. The purpose of the image is to illustrate the general organization and components of the solar system.

• Our Solar System has 8 planets and 5 Dwarf planets.

Celestial Bodies

• Celestial bodies are objects in space that glow in the night sky, such as planets, stars, moons, asteroids, comets, and galaxies.

Table: Luminous Those celestial bodies that emit their own light. Eg. Stars, Firefly, Non-luminous Those celestial bodies that do not emit their own light. Eg. Moon, Comets, Asteroids, Meteorites, Meteor, Meteoroid..

Comets

• Comets are large, icy objects that orbit the Sun. They are made of dust, rock, and frozen gases like water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and methane and when it passes near the Sun, its ice starts melting, creating two tails: ion tail & dust tail.

• Comets generally come from the Kuiper belt (short-period comet) or the Oort cloud (long-period comet).

Oort Cloud: Cloud-like form of icy objects and dust particles, beyond the Kuiper belt.

• Halley's Comet: It is seen every 76 years. It was last seen in 1986 and is expected to return in 2061.

Asteroid

• An asteroid is a rocky, metallic, or icy object that orbits the Sun.

Meteoroid

• A meteoroid is a small, rocky or metallic space rock that orbits the sun. These are much smaller than asteroids, ranging in size from dust grains to objects up to a meter wide.

Meteor

• When a meteoroid enters Earth's atmosphere (in Mesosphere), it burns up and creates a streak of light called a meteor (also known as Shooting Star).

Meteorite

• Meteor shower name Quadrantids is visible in the early month of January.

• If the meteoroid survives its trip through the atmosphere, it hits the ground and is called a meteorite.

Image summary: An educational diagram depicting various celestial bodies against a black background, including a dwarf planet, a comet with a trailing tail, a meteoroid, an asteroid, and a meteorite entering Earth's atmosphere. Along with these, a meteor shower is shown as multiple streaks of light. The purpose of the image is to visually distinguish and categorize different types of small solar system bodies and space debris.

Constellation

• A constellation is a group of stars that appear to form a pattern or shape in the night sky. Every constellation forms an asterism which is a group of stars that form a pattern in the night sky.

Ursa Major Constellation

• It is also known as the Great Bear and Saptarishi (in India), is a constellation in the northern sky. Big Dipper asterism is seen in Ursa Major (Brightest star - Alioth).

Image summary: A simple black-and-white illustration of a constellation, consisting of several star symbols connected by lines to form a specific pattern, with a few smaller dots representing distant stars. It is a symbolic depiction of a star constellation.

Ursa Minor

• Ursa Minor, also known as the Little Bear, is a prominent constellation in the northern sky (Brightest star - Polaris).

Cassiopeia

• It is a W-shaped constellation. The brightest star of Cassiopeia is Schedar (also known as Alpha Cassiopeia).

{Cygnus}

• It is a prominent northern constellation known for its distinctive cross shape.

{Orion}

Image summary: A collection of three astronomical diagrams depicting constellations. The top illustration shows a series of stars linked by lines, and the bottom illustration specifically labels the constellation Cygnus, showing its distinctive cross-like shape. These drawings serve to visualize the patterns of stars that form recognized constellations.

Sagittarius: Bow and cross shaped constellation.

• Orion (also known as The Hunter) is a prominent set of stars visible during winter in the northern celestial hemisphere. The brightest star of Orion is Rigel.

• Brightest star in night sky: Sirius.

Image summary: A line drawing of a constellation, where stars are represented by small star symbols connected by lines to form a geometric shape. It is a schematic representation of a star pattern for identification purposes.

• Nearest star to Earth after sun: Proxima Centauri.

The Sun

• The only star in our solar system and powerhouse of the solar system.

• The Sun produces its own light through Nuclear Fusion in its core, where extremely high temperature (~15 million °C) and pressure cause hydrogen atoms to collide & fuse into helium.

• It is composed of Hydrogen (73%), Helium (25 to 28%) and other gases.

• It carries almost 99% of the mass of our solar system.

The science of studying the Sun and its influence throughout the solar system is called Heliophysics.

• Approximately 15 crore Kilometre (149.6 Million Km) further away from Earth. It takes around 8 minutes 20 seconds for light at the speed of 3 lakh Km/sec to reach the earth.

• Temperature at surface = 5800K or 5600 degrees Celsius

• Temperature at the center = 15.7 million K

Life cycle of a star/Sun Note:

*K: Kelvin billion years. Eventually small stars become white dwarfs, whereas massive stars end up as a neutron star or a black hole following a fierce supernova explosion.

Image summary: A diagram showing two divergent evolutionary paths for stars starting from a stellar nebula. Low mass stars, like the Sun, evolve into red giants, then planetary nebulae, and finally white dwarfs. High mass stars, like Rigel, evolve into red supergiants, then undergo a supernova, resulting in either a neutron star or a black hole. The point is that a star's initial mass determines its life cycle and final remnant.

• Stellar Nebula: Birthplace of stars, clouds of gas and dust.

• Average Star: Current stage of the Sun (~4.6 billion years old, halfway through its approximately 10 billion-year life).

• Red Giant: When hydrogen runs out, the Sun will expand enormously and shed its outer layers.

• Planetary Nebula: Outer layers drift away, leaving the hot core.

• White Dwarf: Dense, faint remnant of the Sun's core.

• Black Dwarf: Eventually cools and fades into a cold, dark remnant.

Layers of Sun: Core less than Radiative Zone less than Convective Zone less than Photosphere (Outermost visible part) less than Chromosphere less than Corona (Outermost layer but not visible with naked eye, extremely hot and only visible during solar eclipses).

Image summary: A diagram of the Sun's internal and external structure, showing a cross-section from the center outward. The layers are labeled as Core, Radiative Zone, Convection Zone, Photosphere, Chromosphere, Transition Region, and Corona. The purpose of the diagram is to illustrate the distinct compositional layers of the Sun from its core to its outer atmosphere.

• The life cycle of a star, including our Sun, is determined primarily by its mass: low-mass stars live for tens of billions of years, medium-mass stars (like the Sun) for about 10–12

Solar flares & Sunspots

Solar flares: These are sudden bursts of radiation caused by magnetic activity on the Sun (short-lived powerful bursts of energy).

Solar wind: It is the continuous flow of charged particles from the Sun's corona (steady, ongoing flow of particles).

Sunspots: These are temporary, planet-sized, darker regions on the Sun's surface caused by intense magnetic activity that inhibits heat transfer, making them cooler than the surrounding photosphere.

Magnetic Cycle: The Sun's magnetic activity peaks every 11 years, increasing the number of sunspots and solar flares.

Solar flares effect on Earth: Damage spacecraft electronics, G.P.S signal disturbance, Geomagnetically induced current in power systems which may cause black-outs, Radiation effects on avionics and communication, induced effects in submarine cables etcetera

When solar flares and solar winds interact with Earth's magnetic field, they trap charged particles, forming the Van Allen Radiation Belt around Earth.

Difference between Solar flares and Coronal Mass Ejections (C.M.E's):

Both phenomena are caused by magnetic reconnection on the Sun, but C.M.E's involve the expulsion of physical material, whereas solar flares are primarily bursts of light and high-energy particles. While they often occur together, they can also happen independently.

Aurora: As the magnetic field of Earth is lesser in the polar regions, Sun's solar flares hit the atmosphere on poles, creating such light phenomenon in both north pole (Aurora Borealis) and south pole (Aurora Australis).

Image summary: A diagram showing the interaction between the Sun and Earth, where solar wind consisting of electrons and protons is emitted from sunspots on the Sun and travels toward Earth. The particles are deflected by Earth's magnetic field, directing some toward the auroral oval at the poles. The diagram illustrates how solar activity influences Earth's magnetosphere and creates auroras.

Planets

Classification of Planets

Table: Columns: Terrestrial Planets, Jovian Planets. Row 1. Terrestrial Planets: They are relatively very small. Jovian Planets: They are immense in size. Row 2. Terrestrial Planets: They are made of rocky material. Jovian Planets: They are made of gaseous material. Row 3. Terrestrial Planets: Their surface is solid. Jovian Planets: They do not have a solid surface. Row 4. Terrestrial Planets: They are nearer to Sun. Jovian Planets: They are far away from Sun. Row 5. Terrestrial Planets: They have few /no moons. Jovian Planets: They have multiple moons. Row 6. Terrestrial Planets: They do not have rings. Jovian Planets: They support ring systems. Row 7. Terrestrial Planets: Eg. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars. Jovian Planets: Eg. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. Row 8. Terrestrial Planets: Mercury.

• It is the smallest planet in the solar system with a diameter of 4900Km.

• It is the fastest planet with speed of 172500 kilometers/h or 47 kilometers/sec to complete revolution around Sun in 88 days.

• It is the only planet that has no atmosphere.

• It is a planet with second highest density

Venus

• It is the hottest planet in the solar system.

• It is also known as “Earth's Twin”. It is because of the similarity in size and mass between Venus and Earth.

- Brightest planet in the Solar system. It can be seen in the morning and evening with open eyes.

• This planet has the slowest rotation. It takes 243 Earth days to complete one rotation.

• Venus is covered with thick clouds of Sulfuric acid (H 2 S O 4).

• Other names for Venus: Morning star, Evening star,

- Lucifer (light bringer).

• All planets have satellites except Mercury and Venus

• All planets rotate from West to East except Venus and Uranus (they rotate from East to West)

Earth

• The only Planet to give support to life with a pleasant atmosphere.

• It is also known as “Blue Planet” because of the presence of water (70%) on it.

• It has one natural satellite named "Moon".

• It is a planet with highest density (5.51 g/cm cubed)

• Closest planet to Earth is Venus.

{Mars}

• It is known as “Red Planet” because of iron-rich red soil.

• It is the second smallest planet in the solar system after Mercury.

• It has two natural moons “Phobos” and “Deimos”.

• It has a thin atmosphere and surface covered with valleys, craters, deserts, and ice caps etcetera

• “Olympus Mons” (height: 22 to 25 kilometers) is the largest volcano and the tallest mountain in the solar system and lies on Mars.

• Length of a day in Mars equal to 24 hr and 37 minutes.

• The asteroid belt is found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

• Asteroid Bennu studied by nasa's Osiris-Rex mission.

{Jupiter}

• It is the largest planet of the solar system with the shortest rotation of 9 hours 55 minutes.

• It has an atmosphere filled with Hydrogen, Helium and other gases.

- Jupiter is the third brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus, but generally three brightest objects in the sky are Sun, Moon and Venus.

• Great Red Spot, a giant storm in the solar system, exists on this planet.

• At present it has 97 moons, including four large Moons "Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto (has evidence of Ozone layer)", also known as Galilean Moons because they were discovered by Galileo. "Ganymede" is the largest among them

• It has a faint ring system.

Saturn

• It is the second largest planet in the solar system.

• It has bright and concentric rings around it which are made up of tiny rocks and pieces of ice.

• Saturn is the planet with the least density (0.69 g/cm ^{3} ). Apparently, it can float in water.

• At present it has 274 moons and Titan is the largest among them.

• Satellites of Saturn to Titan (largest moon) and Enceladus show possibility of life on it.

• In 1655: Huygens discovered Saturn's rings.

• In 1675: Cassini discovered the gap between rings.

Rotation time-10.7 hours.

• Revolution time-29.4 Earth years.

Uranus

• It is greenish in colour, hence known as the “Green Planet” due to the presence of Methane gas in its atmosphere ( C.H 4 ).

• It was discovered by William Herschel in 1781.

• The atmosphere of Uranus is composed of Hydrogen and Helium primarily, but it also contains more water, ammonia etcetera

• It has coldest planetary atmosphere in the solar system.

• It has at least 27 moons. Famous moons lead to Miranda, Ariel, and Umbriel.

• It is tilted to 98 degrees at the axis, hence called the "Rolling/Lopsided Planet".

• Rotation time-17 hours.

• Revolution time-84 Earth years.

Neptune

• It is the farthest planet from the Sun with the longest/slowest revolution of 165 years.

• Its rotation time is 16 hours.

• Atmosphere primarily composed of Hydrogen and Helium.

It is the windiest planet.

It is bluish in colour because of Methane.

• It was discovered by Johann Galle and Urbain Le Verrier in 1846. The only planet in the solar system found by Mathematical Predictions.

• It is known to have 14 satellites and the most famous moon is Triton.

Planets in Decreasing Order of their size

Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Earth Venus Mars Mercury

Moon

• The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite.

It is non-luminous in nature.

• Radii equals 1.74 times 10 to the power of 6 meters

• Thin orbit envelope around the moon is known as Lunar Exosphere.

• Moon's light takes 1.26 seconds to reach Earth's surface.

• Distance between Earth and Moon = 3,840,00 kilometers

• Gravity on Moon = Earth's Gravity/6

• Only one side (near side) of the Moon is visible (roughly of it is visible) and the remaining side (far side) is not visible to the naked eye.

Reason

Rotation time equals Revolution time, which implies 27.3 Days

• Highest point on moon: Mount Leibniz (Now officially known as Mons Huygens).

Sun

Solar, Lunar and Mars Missions

• Aditya-L.1 Mission: This is India's first solar observatory mission launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation (isro) to study the Sun.

L 1 refers to the first Lagrange Point on the Sun. There are a total of 5 Lagrange Points (L 1 through L 5).

Headquarter of I.A.U: Paris, France

{Moon}

Chandrayaan-3:

• It is the third lunar-exploration mission of Indian Space Research Organisation (isro).

• Lander: Vikram (landed on 23rd August, we celebrate it as

National Space Day).

Rover: Pragyaan.

Point: Shiv Shakti Point.

• Chandrayaan-3 landed

The Lagrange Points are positions where the gravitational pull of two large masses precisely equals the centripetal force required for a small object to move with them.

on the near side of the moon (Lunar South Pole).

• Launch Vehicle: G.S.L.V-Mk3

Upcoming missions-

Chandrayaan-4: (mission by isro) will carry the lunar samples (regoliths) from Moon back to Earth.

Chandrayaan-5: lupex (Lunar Polar Exploration) Mission by isro (lander) and jaxa (rover and vehicle), explore the southern pole on moon for a longer time.

Artemis 2:

Agency: nasa • Artemis I-tested systems

• Artemis 3-will land humans on the Moon.

Launch Date: April 1, 2026, from Kennedy Space Center.

Crew: Reid Wiseman, Victor Glover, Christina Koch, Jeremy Hansen.

• First crewed mission; astronauts orbited the Moon for 10 days, studied lunar features, and tested life-support systems.

Mars

Mars Orbiter Mission (M.O.M): (Mangalyaan) is a space probe sent by isro, orbiting Mars since 24 September 2014. With this isro became the first agency in the world to land on Mars successfully on its first attempt, without any country's help.

Upcoming mission-

M.O.M-2 is expected to carry a rover and even a pioneering helicopter, making it India's most ambitious Mars project yet.

Kuiper Belt

Dwarf Planets

• It is a ring of bodies beyond Neptune containing a number of asteroids, rocks, and comets.

Pluto

As per the new definition of Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh.

Planets determined by International Astronomical Union (I.A.U), Pluto has been omitted from the list of planets in 2006 as it was not able to clear its orbit of debris.

• Pluto is considered as a dwarf planet (size between planets and asteroids) now and it is now a member of Kuiper Belt.

• Pluto's largest moon: Charon (out of 5 moons of Pluto).

• 1 revolution of Pluto = 248 Earth years.

• Pluto's oblong orbit overlaps with that of Neptune.

Largest Dwarf Planet

Image summary: A depiction of five planetary bodies of varying sizes, colors, and shapes arranged horizontally against a dark, starry background. The image serves as a visual comparison of different celestial objects.

• Pluto: Largest and brightest dwarf planet.

• Eris: Second largest dwarf planet.

• Makemake: Third largest and it orbits in 310 years.

Haumea: Fastest rotating dwarf planet in Kuiper Belt.

Located in kuiper Belt

- Ceres: This dwarf planet is present in Asteroid Belt.

Pluto 1475 mi (2374 km)

Eris 1445 mi (2326 km)

2007 Or $ _{19} $ Haumea Makemake 955 mi 1195×615 mi 890 mi (1535 km) (1920×990 km) (1430 km)

Three Characteristics of Planets

1. To be around the Sun.

2. To have a nearly spherical shape.

3. They should be able to clear their orbit of debris

The International Space Station (I.S.S)

• It is the largest man-made object in Space and a collaborative project of 5 space agencies: nasa, Roscosmos, jaxa, e.s.a, and C.S.A.

• The first module of the I.S.S Zarya control module was launched in 1998 & the station was fully assembled in 2011.

• The I.S.S is in orbit about 400 kilometre above Earth (at an inclination of 51.6 degrees) and travels around Earth at a speed of about 28000 Km/h. This means that it orbits Earth about every 90 minutes.

India aims to build Bhartiya Antariksh Station by 2035 in a 400 kilometers Orbit above the Earth.

Tiangong is China's self-built space station.

The Chandrasekhar limit

• Proposed by Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar in 1930, earning him the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics.

• It is the maximum mass a white dwarf star can have before collapsing under its own gravity—about 1.44 times the mass of the Sun. Beyond this limit, electron degeneracy pressure can no longer resist gravitational collapse, leading to a supernova and the formation of either a neutron star or a black hole.

Terms to Understands

• Supernova: Explosion of star.

Pulsar: A neutron star.

• Black Hole: A place in space with immense gravity.

• Van Allen Radiation Belts: These are two concentric rings of charged particles that surround the Earth.

The Earth

• Geodesy is the science of accurately measuring and understanding the Earth's geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravity field.

{Shape of Earth}

• Shape of Earth is Geoid or Oblate Spheroid (a little flat from top and bottom) and bulged at the centre.

—Reason: Centrifugal force (due to rotation of Earth)

• Equatorial radii (6378 kilometers) greater than Polar radii (6357 kilometers).

Difference between E.R and P.R is about 21 to 22 kilometers.

• Equatorial circumference greater than Polar circumference.

(All because the Earth is bulged at the equator and fattened at the poles).

Image summary: A diagram displaying the Earth's dimensions, comparing a global view with a cross-sectional view. It lists the mean circumference as 40,040 km and mean radius as 6,371 km, while specifying a polar circumference of 40,008 km and an equatorial circumference of 40,076 km. The cross-section shows the equatorial diameter at 12,756 km and the polar diameter at 12,712 km, highlighting the geoidal bulge at the equator. The takeaway is that the Earth is an oblate spheroid, being wider at the equator than from pole to pole.

Rotation of Earth

• Earth rotates on its own axis, from West to East (Anticlockwise).

• One rotation of Earth = 23 hour 56 minutes 4 seconds.

• Rotational speed is maximum at the equator (Equatorial Speed) and minimum at the poles (Polar Speed).

- Day and night are caused by the Earth's rotation on its axis.

Revolution of Earth

• Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.

• One revolution = 365 days 5 hours 59 minutes and 16 seconds.

• Orbital speed = 29.8 kilometers/s.

: Image summary: A diagram of the Earth with a red arrow encircling it and a tilted axis passing through the poles. Below the globe, the text reads "Takes: 24 hours or 1 day." The image depicts the Earth's rotation on its axis, showing that one full turn takes 24 hours.

Image summary: A diagram showing the Earth orbiting the Sun along an elliptical red path, with a caption stating that this process takes 365 days or 1 year. The purpose is to illustrate the time it takes for Earth to complete one revolution around the Sun.

• Mercury has the maximum orbital speed 47.87 kilometers/s at perihelion.

• Neptune has the minimum orbital speed 5.43 kilometers/s.

• The Earth's revolution around the sun and the tilt of its axis (23.5°) together cause the seasons.

Rotation to turn

Takes: 24 hours or 1 day

Revolution go around

Takes: 365 days or 1 year

Rotation vs Resolution

Distance of Earth from Sun and Moon

Table: Columns: Sun, Moon. Row 1. Sun: The point in a planet's orbit when it is closest to the Sun is called Perihelion. On January 3rd, the Earth is nearest to the Sun (147 million km). The point in a planet's orbit when it is farthest from the Sun is called Aphelion. On July 4th, the Earth is farthest from Sun (152 million km).. Moon: The point in the moon's orbit when it is closest to Earth is called Perigee. At perigee, the moon appears larger in the sky. The point in the moon's orbit when it's farthest from Earth is called Apogee. At apogee, the moon's tidal-raising force is smaller, and the tidal ranges are less than average..

Image summary: A diagram showing the elliptical orbit of the Moon around Earth. The Moon is shown at two positions: perigee, where it is closest to Earth, and apogee, where it is furthest from Earth. The figure illustrates the variation in distance between the Moon and Earth throughout its orbit.

Inclination of Earth's Axis

Axial inclination: Inclination of Earth on its axis equals 23.5 degrees.

• Orbital inclination: Inclination of Earth on its orbital plane equals 66.5 degrees.

: Image summary: A diagram of the Earth showing the angle between the plane of the equator and the plane of the ecliptic. The Earth's axis is tilted, creating an angle of 23 degrees 30 minutes between the axial pole and the perpendicular to the ecliptic, which corresponds to a 66 degrees 30 minute angle relative to the orbital plane. The diagram illustrates the axial tilt of the Earth relative to its orbit around the Sun.

Latitude

Latitude and Longitude

• They are imaginary horizontal lines on the globe that run from East to West.

• It is the angular distance of a place from the equator.

• The number of total latitudes is 181 but latitude circles are

179 in number (as 90 deg N & 90 deg S are only points, not circles)

• Distance between each latitude is same.

• 1 degree of latitude equals 111 kilometers.

Important Latitudes

• 0 degrees: Equator (divides Earth into two equal parts) to Northern and Southern Hemisphere.

• 23 and one half degrees North: Tropic of Cancer.

• 66 and one half degrees North: Arctic Circle.

• 23 and one half degrees South: Tropic of Capricorn.

• 66 and one half degrees South: Antarctic Circle.

{Longitude}

• All parallel circles from the equator to the poles are known as “Parallels of Latitude”.

• Largest latitude: Equator. • Smallest latitude: Poles (North and South).

• They are imaginary vertical lines (also called Meridians) over the globe that run North to South.

• It is an angular distance of a place from Prime Meridian.

• Distance between each longitude decreases from Equator towards poles, at the poles it is 0, while it is maximum at the equator (111.32 Km), but length of each longitude is same.

• Total longitudes 360 degrees.

Gore: A sector of curved surface of earth that lies between two longitudes, in simple words, Gore is the distance between two consecutive longitudes.

Note - We need both latitude and longitude for the location of a place.

: Image summary: A diagram of Earth showing latitude lines ranging from 0 degrees at the Equator to 90 degrees North and South. Blue lines represent the Northern Hemisphere and red lines represent the Southern Hemisphere. The diagram illustrates how latitude is used as a coordinate system to measure distance north or south of the Equator.

Image summary: A diagram of a globe illustrating the system of longitude. Lines of longitude run vertically from the North Pole to the South Pole, starting at the Prime meridian (0 degrees) and increasing in 30-degree increments toward the West (marked in red) and East (marked in blue) until they meet at 180 degrees. The diagram demonstrates how the Earth is divided into eastern and western hemispheres relative to the Prime meridian.

Important Meridians (Longitude)

• Prime Meridian-0 longitude (passes through Greenwich, London).

• 180 degrees East and 180 degrees West are the same longitude (unlike latitudes), that's the opposite of 0 degrees or prime meridian. This 180 degrees meridian is the International Date Line.

• Prime Meridian also known as International Meridian or Greenwich Meridian. It passes though

Burkina Faso goes to B

Spain leads to S

Ghana goes to G

Algeria goes to A

Mali leads to Me

Togo goes to In Togo

U.K implies Kingdom

Trick to Remember

B.S.F Game in Togo

Kingdom

Image summary: A world map utilizing a Mollweide-style projection showing the global distribution of continents. Two perpendicular red lines mark the Equator and the Prime Meridian, intersecting to define the coordinate system of the Earth. The purpose of the image is to illustrate the primary reference lines used in geographic mapping.

Prime Meridian

Concept of Time using Longitude

- 360° - 24 hours

- 15 degrees equals 1 hour

- 1 degree equals 60 degrees divided by 15 equals 4 minutes downward arrow (Time taken in each 1 degree)

Image summary: A map of the world showing a red boundary line extending through the Pacific Ocean, with a specific section labeled as the Zig-Zag Line. This map depicts the International Date Line and how its irregular shape allows specific island nations to choose their calendar date.

Question - If it is 12 noon at 60 degrees East longitude, then explain what would be the time at 30 degrees East Longitude?

Answer. Difference in longitude: 60 degrees East minus 30 degrees East equals 30 degrees

Time difference: 30 degrees times 4 minutes equals 120 minutes equals 2 hours

Since 30 degrees East is west of 60 degrees East, it will be earlier in time.

• Moving East away from Prime Meridian, the time will increase by an hour for every 15 degrees, consecutively if we move to West from the Prime Meridian, the time will decrease by an hour for every 15 degrees.

• Entire earth is divided into 24 Times Zones. France has the most number of Time Zones (13) Russia (11 time zones), U.S (6 time zones).

International Date Line (180 E/W)

• It is the imaginary zig-zag line passing through the Pacific Ocean from where the date changes.

• While crossing International Date Line eastbound that is from East to West (Eg. Japan to U.S.A) to Date is subtracted by 1 or in other words, the person gains a day and vice versa.

Concept of Great Circle

• A great circle is the largest possible circle that can be drawn around a sph

• Isochrones: They are lines joining points located at equal travel time from a common centre.

• It divides the Earth into two equal parts called Hemispheres (Northern and Southern).

• All longitudes are considered great circles, but only one latitude is considered a great circle and that is Equator (0° latitude).

International Date Line

Hemisphere

• Equal division of Earth in two parts.

• Equator: It divides the globe horizontally into two equal parts: Northern and Southern hemisphere.

• Prime Meridian: It divides the globe vertically in two equal parts: Eastern and Western Hemisphere.

• India is located in the Northern part of Equator and Eastern part of Prime Meridian, so it's in the North Eastern hemisphere.

Image summary: A world map dividing the globe into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres by the equator, and dividing it east and west by the Prime Meridian. The map labels the seven continents and five major oceans, illustrating the basic geographic organization of the Earth's landmasses and water bodies.

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

Solstice and Equinox

• Solstice: A solstice is an astronomical event that occurs twice a year when the sun reaches its highest or lowest point in the sky, resulting in the longest day or shortest day of the year.

Table: Columns: Summer Solstice, Winter Solstice. Row 1. Summer Solstice: It occurs on 21st June. Winter Solstice: It occurs on 22nd December. Row 2. Summer Solstice: It is the longest day of the year in Northern Hemisphere. Winter Solstice: It is the shortest day and longest night of the year in Northern Hemisphere. Row 3. Summer Solstice: The vertical rays of Sun are directly overhead on Tropic of Cancer. Winter Solstice: The vertical rays of Sun are directly overhead on Tropic of Capricorn. Row 4. Summer Solstice: Northern Hemisphere gets more heat. Winter Solstice: Southern Hemisphere gets more heat. Row 5. Summer Solstice: Continuous sun rays fall on the North Pole for 6 months. Winter Solstice: Continuous sun rays fall on the South Pole for 6 months.

• Equinox: An equinox is a time when the Sun's apparent path in the sky crosses the equator, making day and night approximately equal in length. At this position, neither of the poles is tilted towards the Sun.

• Vernal or Spring equinox: 21st March.

• Autumnal or Fall equinox: 23rd September.

Image summary: A diagram showing Earth's orbit around the Sun, illustrating the seasonal changes related to the solstice and equinox. It depicts Earth in four positions: the spring and autumn equinoxes in March and September, and the summer and winter solstices in June and December. The tilt of Earth's axis relative to the Sun causes opposite seasons in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres at any given time. The point is that the combination of Earth's axial tilt and its orbit creates the annual cycle of seasons.

• Syzygy: When the Sun, Moon and Earth, all are aligned in a straight line, the alignment is known as Syzygy.

• Solar eclipse: It occurs when the Moon passes between the Earth and the Sun (Conjunction Syzygy), casting a shadow on Earth. This can only happen during a new moon (Amavasya).

• Types of Solar Eclipse: Partial, Annular, Total

: Image summary: Three diagrams illustrating different types of solar eclipses. The first shows a Partial eclipse where only a portion of the sun is covered, the second shows an Annular eclipse where a ring of sunlight remains around the moon, and the third shows a Total eclipse where the sun is completely obscured except for a small glow. The figure serves to visually distinguish between these three categories of eclipses.

• Lunar eclipse: It occurs when the Earth passes between the Moon and the Sun (Opposition Syzygy), casting a shadow on Moon. This can only happen during a full moon (Purnima).

Image summary: A diagram of a solar eclipse showing the relative positions of the sun, moon, and Earth. The moon is positioned between the sun and Earth, casting a dark inner cone called the umbra and a lighter outer cone called the penumbra onto Earth's surface. The diagram illustrates how the moon's position blocks sunlight to create full and partial shadows on Earth.

Image summary: A diagram of a lunar eclipse showing the sun, Earth, and moon aligned in a row. The sun's light is blocked by Earth, creating a dark central region called the umbra (full shadow) and a lighter outer region called the penumbra (partial shadow), with the moon positioned within these shadow zones. The diagram illustrates how Earth's position between the sun and the moon causes a lunar eclipse.

• Umbra and Penumbra: During a solar or lunar eclipse, the darkest, innermost central part of shadow is called Umbra, and lighter, diffused outer part of the shadow that surrounds

the umbra, is known as Penumbra.

• Red moon: When Earth blocks the Sun's light (light refraction), it causes blue colour (scatters more) light to vanish and red light to reach moon (scatters less).

• Blue moon: Blue moon (occurs when there are two full moons within a single calendar month).

• Supermoon: A supermoon occurs when the Moon's orbit is closest to the Earth during a full/new moon.

• The moon appears larger and brighter than its normal size.

Torrid, Temperate, and Frigid Zone

: Image summary: A photo of a reddish-brown spherical celestial body against a black background, captioned as showing the Frigid, Temperate, and Torrid Zones. The image is intended to illustrate the different climatic zones of a planet based on its latitude.

>'Image summary: A photograph of the moon showing its surface texture and cratering, with a caption identifying the frigid, temperate, and torrid zones. The image is used to illustrate the conceptual geographical zoning of the lunar surface.'

: Image summary: A photo of the moon split vertically by a black line, with the left and right halves showing slightly different lighting and surface details. According to the caption, it illustrates the Frigid, Temperate, and Torrid Zones, depicting how different regions of the lunar surface experience varying thermal conditions based on their latitude.

• Torrid Zone: Receives direct overhead rays of the Sun due to which it is the hottest zone. It is located between the Tropics.

• Temperate Zone: Region between Tropic of Cancer and Arctic Circle or Tropic of Capricorn and Antarctic Circle. It receives slanting rays of the Sun.

• Frigid Zone: Coldest region on Earth which experiences daylight for 6 months and 6 months of night (due to the tilt of Earth). Located beyond

the Arctic 66 and 1 degree over 2 North and Antarctic Circle 66 and 1 degree over 2 South.

।Image summary: A circular diagram of the Earth dividing it into six climatic zones based on latitude. The North and South Frigid Zones are at the poles beyond 66.5 degrees, the North and South Temperate Zones lie between 23.5 and 66.5 degrees, and the North and South Torrid Zones meet at the equator from 0 to 23.5 degrees. The diagram illustrates how the Earth is partitioned into different climate regions based on distance from the equator.

Perigree + Lunar Eclipse

Tides

• {Tides} : Tides are the periodic rise and fall of the ocean's water levels. They are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on the Earth's oceans. They are of two types:

• Neap Tides: They occur when Earth, Moon, and Sun are in perpendicular alignment (Quadrature).

• Spring Tides: They occur when the Earth, Moon, and Sun are in straight line alignment (Syzygy).

Image summary: A diagram illustrating the alignment of the Sun, Earth, and Moon during a spring tide. The Sun, New moon, and Full moon are positioned in a straight line with Earth, with the labeled lunar tide and solar tide both pulling along this same axis. This alignment shows that the gravitational forces of the Sun and Moon combine to create the spring tide.

: Image summary: A diagram of a neap tide showing the relative positions of the Sun, Earth, and Moon. In this configuration, the Moon is at a right angle to the Sun relative to Earth, with the lunar tide and solar tide acting in opposing directions. This alignment results in a neap tide, which is characterized by a smaller difference between high and low tide levels.

Flood Tide and Ebb Tide

• Flood tide is the incoming, rising tide that moves toward the coast, increasing the water level to high tide. Conversely, ebb tide is the outgoing, falling tide that recedes from the land, lowering the water level to low tide.

Image summary: A diagram depicting the movement of water along a coastline, with arrows showing the flood tide flowing inland and the ebb tide flowing back to sea. The vertical distance between the high tide and low tide markers is labeled as the tidal range. The diagram illustrates the basic cycle of tidal movement and the resulting difference in water levels.

: Image summary: A map of Gujarat, India, with a pointer to the Gulf of Kutch. The text states that the Gulf of Kutch has maximum potential for tidal energy because of its shape.

• Semi-Diurnal tides: Tidal cycles with two nearly equal high tides and low tides every lunar day.

• The difference of time between two successive High tide and low tide is approximately 6 hours and 12 minutes.

• The difference of time between two successive high tides is approximately 12 hours and 26 minutes.

• $ \underline{\text{Diurnal tides}} $: Tidal cycles with one high tide and one low tide each lunar day, commonly found in the Gulf of Mexico and parts of Alaska.

Earth's Interior

• Geology: The scientific study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, rocks, soil, and the processes that

Father of Geology: James Hutton

Sources to know about Earth's interior

Image summary: A flow chart outlining sources of information about Earth's interior, dividing them into direct sources, such as volcanoes and rocks, and indirect sources, including temperature, meteorites, and earthquakes. This structure categorizes evidence based on whether it is obtained directly from the interior or inferred through secondary means.

• The Kola Superdeep Borehole, located on Russia's Kola Peninsula, is the deepest drilling done on Earth by humans till now, for scientific research, reaching a maximum vertical depth of 12 kilometers.

• Even the mines in South Africa have a maximum depth of 3 to 4 kilometers.

Layers of Earth

Crust

• Generally, the crust is made of Silica and Aluminium (SiAl).

• Thickness: 5 to 70 kilometers.

• The overall crust is brittle in nature.

: Image summary: A pie chart showing the elemental composition of the Earth's crust. Oxygen is the most abundant element at 46.6%, followed by Silicon at 27.7% and Aluminum at 8.1%, while other elements like Iron, Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, and Magnesium each comprise smaller percentages. The takeaway is that Oxygen and Silicon together make up the vast majority of the crust's composition.

Most Abundant Element: Oxygen

Most Abundant Metal: Aluminium

Table: Columns: Continental Crust, Oceanic Crust. Row 1. Continental Crust: It is the land of the crust, the outermost layer of the Earth that makes up the continents and continental shelves. Oceanic Crust: It is the water part of the crust, the solid layer Earth's crust that lies beneath the ocean.. Row 2. Continental Crust: It is thick (30 kilometers). Oceanic Crust: It is thin (5 kilometers). Row 3. Continental Crust: It is lighter. Oceanic Crust: It is denser. Row 4. Continental Crust: It is made of granitic rock. Oceanic Crust: It is made of Basaltic rock.. Row 5. Continental Crust: Mean density - 2.7 g/cm raised to 3. Oceanic Crust: Mean density - 2.9 g/cm raised to 3.

Image summary: A diagram of Earth's internal structure showing various layers from the surface to the center. Layers move from the Continental and Oceanic crust through the Upper and Lower Mantle and the Outer and Inner Core, reaching a total depth of 6370km. A vertical arrow on the left indicates that density increases as depth increases, starting from 3g/cm3 at the surface. The figure illustrates how Earth is organized into distinct compositional and physical layers that become denser toward the core.

Composition of Earth's crust

Mantle

• It is made of Silica and Magnesium (SiMa).

• Thickness: 2900 kilometers.

• Mean density: 4.5 grams per cubic centimeter

• Mantle has two divisions: Upper Mantle and Lower Mantle.

• Asthenosphere: It is a semi-solid/semi-molten layer of earth's upper mantle that is mechanically weak and ductile. It lies beneath the lithosphere (the rigid outermost layer of earth made up of crust and upper solid mantle with 10 to 200 kilometers of thickness). Asthenosphere is a source of magma/lava, which extends up to 400 kilometers.

{Core}

Asthenosphere is not a part of Lithosphere.

• It is made of Nickel and Iron (NiFe).

• Mean density: 13 grams per cubic centimeter.

• Core has two divisions:

- —1. Inner core: It is in solid form (1220 kilometers).

-2. Outer core: It is in liquid form and shows magnetic properties (2200 kilometers).

Table: Columns: By, Crust, Mantle, Core. Row 1. By: Volume. Crust: 1%. Mantle: 84%. Core: 15%. Row 2. By: Mass. Crust: 1%. Mantle: 68%. Core: 31%.

: Image summary: A diagram of Earth's internal structure showing layered sections from the surface to the center. It labels the Crust, Mantle, Outer Core (Liquid), and Inner Core (Solid), while highlighting four boundaries: the Conrad discontinuity (upper/lower crust), Mohorovicic (lower crust/upper mantle), Repetti (upper/lower mantle), and Gutenberg (mantle/core), as well as the Lehmann discontinuity (outer/inner core). The takeaway is a visual guide to the chemical and physical boundaries, known as discontinuities, that separate the Earth's layers.

)%>%Image summary: A diagram showing a mnemonic trick for remembering names. Arrows connect

Mountain isostasy

• Mountains rest on the Earth's crust like icebergs floating in water, with deep "roots" extending into the mantle. The higher the mountain, the deeper its root below the Earth's surface to maintain balance.

Image summary: A diagram showing a mountain with a surface peak and a deep "root" extending downward through the crust and into the mantle. It illustrates the principle of isostasy, where a taller mountain requires a deeper root to support its weight, similar to how a buoy floats in water.

Theory of Plate Tectonics: It is given Mckenzie and Parker in 1967. This theory suggests that the Earth's lithosphere (crust and uppermost mantle) is broken into large, rigid plates that move and interact with each other, driving various geological phenomena such as earthquake.

• Convection current that occurs in the asthenosphere is the force behind the plate movement. The heat from the Earth's interior causes currents of hot rising magma and cooler sinking magma to flow, moving the lithospheric plates along with them.

Earthquake

• An earthquake is an intense shaking of Earth's surface, which is caused by shifting of Earth's plate. It is a sudden release of energy along the fault line in the form of waves (also known as seismic waves).

• Epicentre: It is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the earthquake's focus (also known as the hypocentre), where the earthquake originates underground.

Image summary: A diagram of an earthquake's origin showing a fault line extending diagonally underground. It identifies the hypocenter, or focus, as the point of origin on the fault, and the epicenter as the point directly above it on the surface. The diagram illustrates the geometric relationship between the underground source of an earthquake and its surface location.

• Hypocentre: It is the point within the Earth where the earthquake begins.

• All natural earthquake occur in lithosphere.

• Earthquake generate seismic waves, which are vibrations that travel through the earth in the form of body waves and surface waves.

{Body Waves}

These waves travel through the Earth's interior with high speed.

They are of two types: P-waves and S-waves.

Table: Columns: P-waves, S-waves. Row 1. P-waves: They are also known as primary waves. S-waves: They are also known as secondary waves. Row 2. P-waves: They are the fastest seismic waves (first to record on seismograph) to 7 to 8 kilometers/sec. S-waves: They are the slow seismic waves in comparison to P-waves to 4 to 6 kilometers/sec. Row 3. P-waves: They can travel through all medium (solid greater than liquid greater than gas). S-waves: They can travel through only solids. Row 4. P-waves: P-waves are longitudinal compression waves, similar to sound waves. S-waves: S-waves are transverse waves, that causes the ground to vibrate perpendicular to the direction of the wave. Row 5. P-waves: They cause stretching and squeezing because they vibrate parallel to the direction of waves. S-waves: They create crests and troughs because they vibrate perpendicular to the direction of waves.

Note: Shallow focus, earthquakes have more intensity than the deeper ones.

Surface Waves

• When body waves come in contact with surface rocks, they form surface waves.

• They are more destructive in nature and cause displacement of rocks.

Surface waves are of two types

They produce a complex, rolling motion in the ground (similar to ocean waves).

• They are the last to be recorded on seismograph.

A seismograph is an instrument that measures and registers seismic waves that travel through the Earth as the outcome of an earthquake.

Scales to Measure Earthquake

Table: Columns: Richter Scale, Mercalli Scale. Row 1. Richter Scale: It is an instrument to measure magnitude of the earthquake. Mercalli Scale: It is an instrument to measure the intensity of the earthquake. Row 2. Richter Scale: It measures magnitude from 0 to 10. Mercalli Scale: It measures intensity from 1 to 12. Row 3. Richter Scale: Richter scale relates to the energy released during the earthquake.. Mercalli Scale: Mercalli scale takes into account the visible damage caused by the earthquake.. Row 4. Richter Scale: It is a limitless scale.

Shadow Zone of Waves

Image summary: A diagram illustrating the P-wave and S-wave shadow zones created by an earthquake. P-waves are refracted by the Earth's core, creating a specific shadow zone between 105 and 145 degrees, while S-waves are completely blocked by the liquid outer core, resulting in a much larger shadow zone covering 40 percent of the Earth's surface. The takeaway is that these distinct shadow zones provide evidence for the existence and liquid state of the Earth's outer core.

• The shadow zone of an earthquake is the area of the Earth, where certain seismic waves are not detected. The shadow zone of S-waves (105°-105°) is larger (40% of Earth's surface) than the shadow zone of P-waves (105°-145°).

• Animals are sensitive to infrasonic waves, seismic p waves; therefore, they can sense natural calamities like earthquakes, tsunamis beforehand.

{Effects of Earthquake}

• Tsunami (Japanese term): These are harbour waves. It occurs when earthquake occurs at sea floor.

• Soil liquefaction

• Landslide

• Avalanche

• Floods

Fire

The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004, also

The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004, also known as the "Boxing Day Tsunami", happens to be the deadliest tsunami to date.

• On May 22, 1960, Chile got struck with the strongest earthquake in history (9.5 magnitude), also known as the Great Chilean Earthquake.

Types of Earthquake

• Collapse earthquake: These are small earthquake that occurs when the roof of underground mine or caverns collapse.

• Explosion earthquake: An earthquake caused by detonation of a chemical or nuclear device.

• Tectonic earthquake: An earthquake caused by movement of earth's tectonic plates.

• Reservoir induced earthquake: An occurrence of earthquakes caused by construction of large reservoirs. This is human-induced earthquake. Eg. 1967 Koyna Dam earthquake (Maharashtra).

• Volcanic earthquake: An earthquake that occurs as result of volcanic eruption.

Earthquake zones in India

Tectonic Plates

Image summary: A seismic zone map of India categorized by different colors to represent seismic risk levels. The northern regions, including Jammu & Kashmir and parts of the northeast, are marked in dark red as Zone V, the highest risk, while central and southern regions are predominantly light tan, indicating lower risk. The map illustrates the uneven distribution of seismic vulnerability across the country, with the highest risk concentrated in the north and northeast.

• Lithosphere makes plates comprising crust and upper solid part of Mantle.

There are 7 major + few minor plates.

Image summary: A world map showing the division of the Earth's lithosphere into several major and minor tectonic plates, including the Pacific, North American, Eurasian, African, South American, Indian, Australian, and Antarctic plates. The map illustrates how these plates fit together like a puzzle, depicting the global structure of plate tectonics.

Major and Minor tectonic plates

Major Tectonic Plates

• Pacific plate (Largest)

• North American plate

• South American plate

• African plate

• Antarctic plate

• Eurasian plate

• Australian plate

Minor Tectonic Plates

• Cocos plate

• Nazca plate

• Caribbean plate

• Indian plate

• Philippine plate

• Juan de Fuca plate (Smallest)

Three Types of Plate Boundary

.Image summary: A series of diagrams illustrating three types of tectonic plate boundaries. Divergent boundaries show plates moving apart as the asthenosphere rises; convergent boundaries show one plate sliding beneath another; and transform boundaries show plates sliding horizontally past each other. A larger cross-section below shows how these processes create geological features such as ridges, trenches, and volcanoes. The takeaway is that the relative motion of lithospheric plates determines the specific landforms and volcanic activity created at their boundaries.

Table: Columns: Divergent, Convergent, Transform. Row 1. Divergent: Occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other, causes lava to explode, leading to new crust formation.. Convergent: It happens when plates collide, causing one plate to subduct beneath the other creating a subduction zone, potentially destroying the crust.. Transform: It is a plate boundary where plates slide past each other, neither creating nor destroying crust and hence Conservative in nature (San Andreas Fault)..

• Divergent plate boundary of two oceanic plates forms mid oceanic ridge, but divergent plate boundary of two continental plates forms Rift valley with block mountains on both sides, like the African Rift Valley.

• At convergent boundaries, dense oceanic crust subducts beneath continental crust, forming trenches and uplifting mountains. Melting of the subducting plate produces magma that rises, creating volcanic chains near the mountains.

• But in case of the Indian plate and Eurasian plate, as both are continental crusts, no major subduction took place, the plates got folded to form the Himalayas (As no subduction occurred here, no volcanoes formed nearby).

Ring of Fire

• It is a result of Convergent Plate Boundary. It is a horse-shoe-shaped region around the Pacific Ocean. It is a high earthquake (90%) and volcano prone region (75%).

Table: Columns: Formation of rocks, Sedimentary rocks. Row 1. Formation of rocks: Petrology: The study of rocks is called Petrology. Rocks do not have definite composition of mineral constituents. Age of rocks is calculated using Carbon Dating. Igneous Rocks The word “Igneous” derived from the Latin word “Ignis” which means “fire”. Igneous rocks (also called “Azoic”, as no fossils are found in them) are formed through the cooling and solidification of molten rock, known as magma or lava. Two Types of Igneous Rocks. Sedimentary rocks: Sedimentary rocks are a type of rock that forms from the accumulation and consolidation of sediments over time. Lithification is a process by which loose sediments are transformed into solid sedimentary rock. This occurs through a combination of compaction and cementation over long periods of time. They exist in layers/strata. Types of Sedimentary Rocks 1. Mechanically/Clastically formed: Sandstone, limestone, conglomerate, shale, loess, etcetera 2. Organically formed: Chalk, limestone, coal, geyserite, etcetera 3. Chemically formed: Limestone, halite, chert, etcetera. Row 2. Formation of rocks: Intrusive Igneous Rocks/Plutonic Rocks When the magma cools and solidifies slowly within the Earth's crust, it forms intrusive igneous rocks. Eg. Granite, Gabbro, etcetera Plutonic Bodies Plutonic bodies, also known as plutons, are large bodies of intrusive igneous rock that form beneath the Earth's surface. Types of Plutonic Bodies Batholiths: A batholith is a large mass of igneous rock that forms deep within the Earth's crust and is exposed at the surface through erosion and uplift. Dykes: Dykes are vertical or steeply inclined sheets of magma that cut across the layers of surrounding rock. Sills: Sills are horizontal sheets of magma that intrude between layers of pre-existing rock. Phacolith: A phacolith is a lens-shaped igneous rock pluton that forms in folded sedimentary rock found at Anticlines and Synclines. Laccoliths: Dome-shaped intrusions with a flat base that push overlying layers upward. It is connected by a pipe-like structure. Conduit. Lapoliths: These are saucer-shaped intrusions with concave top and bottom.. Sedimentary rocks: METAMORPHIC ROCKS Metamorphic rocks are rocks that form when existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or even other metamorphic rocks) are subjected to intense heat, pressure, or volume change, causing them to undergo physical and chemical changes. This process is also called Metamorphism. These rocks are formed by recrystallisation and reorganisation of materials within the original rocks. Two Types of Metamorphic Rocks Thermal Metamorphism Dynamic Metamorphism These are formed due to sudden temperature change. Generally formed as a result of high pressure. Types of Thermal Metamorphism Contact Metamorphism Regional Metamorphism It occurs when rocks are altered by intense heat due to their proximity to magma or lava. Image Image (A) Alternate light and dark bands called Banding; (B) Lines formed called Lineation/foliation Quartz is not a rock, it is a mineral. Taj Mahal is made of: Marble (metamorphic rock). Red Fort is made of: Red sandstone (sedimentary rock)..

Image summary: A diagram of the magma cycle showing the transition from intrusive to extrusive igneous rocks. Magma rises from a large underground batholith and stock, moving through vertical dikes and horizontal sills or laccoliths, eventually erupting as lava and pyroclastic deposits from a volcano. The diagram associates cooling rates with crystal size, showing that slow cooling in intrusive rocks produces large crystals, moderate cooling in sills and dikes produces medium crystals, and rapid cooling in extrusive rocks produces small crystals. The point is to illustrate how the location and rate of magma cooling determine the resulting rock texture and structure.

Sandstone leads to Quartzite via Metamorphism (Sedimentary)

Limestone leads to Marble (Sedimentary) through Metamorphism • Granite: Found in Continental crust. • Basalt: Found in Oceanic crust.

Image summary: A photograph of a dark, textured piece of rock or fossilized material showing distinct horizontal layering and a rugged surface. It is a descriptive image of a specimen, with no data or analytical result to report.

• It is a geological process that describes how the three main types of rock: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary change over time.

Image summary: A diagram of the rock cycle showing the transitions between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rock transforms into sedimentary rock via uplift and erosion, and into metamorphic rock via heat and pressure. Sedimentary rock transforms into metamorphic rock through heat and pressure. Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks both transform into igneous rock through melting and cooling. The diagram illustrates how different geological processes continuously cycle rock types into one another.

uneiss

Quartzite

Limestone

Acidic vs Basic Rocks

Table: Columns: Acidic Rocks, Basic Rocks. Row 1. Acidic Rocks: They are high in silica (mostly feldspar and quartz minerals) up to 80%. Basic Rocks: They are poor in silica (mostly feldspar and quartz minerals) about 40%. Row 2. Acidic Rocks: They are light in color. Basic Rocks: They are dark in color. Row 3. Acidic Rocks: Due to high silica content, acidic magma cools faster. Basic Rocks: Due to low silica content, basic magma cools slowly. Row 4. Acidic Rocks: They are formed from acidic lava (Felsic in nature - high in Silica & Feldspar) which is viscous in nature.. Basic Rocks: They are formed from basic lava (Mafic in nature - high in Magnesium & Iron) which is fluid in nature.. Row 5. Acidic Rocks: Eg. Granite, Quartz, Feldspar. Basic Rocks: Eg. Basalt, Gabbro, Dolerite.

Volcano

• A volcano is a geological feature formed by the eruption of molten rock (magma) from beneath the Earth's crust.

• On the basis of frequency of lava eruption, Volcanoes can be categorised in 3 types:

1. Active Volcano: A volcano that is currently erupting or has erupted recently and may erupt again in the future.

2. Dormant volcano: A volcano that has not erupted for a long time but may erupt again in the future.

3. Extinct volcano: A volcano that has not erupted for thousands of years and is not expected to erupt again.

{Types of Volcano}

1. Cinder cone: They are small, steep-sided volcanoes formed by moderately explosive eruptions and erupts more pyroclastic debris than lava.

2. Flood Basalt Province: These volcanoes outpour, highly fluid lava that flows for long distances. Eg. Deccan Traps (in West Central region).

3. Shield: They are primarily formed by eruption of basaltic lava which is non-viscous fluid. They become explosive when water enters their vent. Eg. Kilauea Volcano in Hawaii, U.S.A.

4. Composite: They are generally cooler and viscous in nature. They are also known as Stratovolcano. Eg. Mount Chimborazo and Mount Fuji.

Image summary: A diagram of a volcano showing its internal and external structures, including the magma chamber and igneous rocks below ground, with paths leading up through a vent to form a crater, lava flows, and an ash cloud. It also labels underground formations like sills and laccoliths, illustrating the various ways magma moves and erupts to form volcanic features.

5. Caldera: It is the most explosive type of volcano, it collapses on itself, which means their magma chamber is in close vicinity.

6. Fissure volcano: They have an elongated vent or crack formed by divergent plate boundary, through which lava erupts. It doesn't have a hill or mountain-like structure like other volcanoes but shows volcanic activity.

7. Arc Volcanoes: Volcanoes formed in the ocean due to convergent plate boundary.

Highest volcano: Ojas del Salado (it is located between Chile and Argentina in Andes mountain range).

Lighthouse of Mediterranean: Mount Stromboli

Largest volcano by volume - Mauna Loa, Hawaii.

Volcanic hotspots

- Generally volcanoes are formed between plate boundaries but some volcanoes are formed within the plates and their source of magma is outer core not asthenosphere.

Example: Hawaiian volcanoes like Mauna Loa, Mauna Kia etcetera are hotspot volcanoes and they're not connected to the Pacific ring of fire.

{Geyser}

• A geyser is a hot spring that intermittently erupts steam and hot water due to geothermal activity beneath the Earth's surface.

• Geysers are commonly found in areas of volcanic activity because the heat from magma or hot rocks below the Earth's surface heats the groundwater, leading to the formation of geysers.

Example: Old faithful geyser in the U.S.A (near this hotspot volcanism can be seen in Yellow Stone National Park), Puga Valley in Ladakh, Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh (at Parvati Valley).

Continents and Oceans

• In 1912, Alfred Wegener gave Continental Drift Theory.

• All of the modern day continents had previously been clumped together in a supercontinent called Pangaea and the water body is called Panthalassa.

Evidences

Jig-saw fit.

• Fossil deposits (Paleontology is the study of Fossils).

• Botanical evidences.

Image summary: A series of four world maps showing the movement of tectonic plates from 225 million years ago to the present. The maps show the initial supercontinent Pangea surrounded by the Panthalassa ocean, followed by its gradual breakup into smaller landmasses and the opening of the Tethys Sea, eventually resulting in the current positions of the continents. The figure illustrates the theory of continental drift.

• Rocks of same age across the oceans.

• Ghana gold deposit (Placer deposits)-Gold deposits in Ghana were connected to the Brazilian plateau, when two continents laid side by side. As a result, even though the gold deposits are found in Ghana & South African region, the gold veins still remained in South America.

• Gondwana System Sediments: The Gondwana system of sediments (sedimentary rock that is deposited directly by glacial ice, called Tillite deposits) from India has counterparts in six other southern landmasses: Africa, Australia, Antarctica, Madagascar, South America, and the Falkland Islands.

Reason for Continental drift

1. Tidal force

2. Pole fleeing force

As suggested by Alfred Wegener

• Actual reason was later given by Arthur Holmes in 1930 (Convection Current Theory) which states that continental drift occurs due to the movement of tectonic plates, which is driven by convection cells in the Earth's mantle.

• The heat that drives convection cells in the Earth's mantle and plate motion comes mainly from three sources:

1. Radioactive decay of elements (causing thermal differences).

2. Residual heat from the Earth's formation about 4.6 billion years ago when gravitational energy was converted into heat.

3. Latent heat released by the solidification of the Earth's core as it cools down.

Milankovitch Theory

• It describes the collective effects of changes in Earth's movement on its climate over thousands of years.

• In 1596, Abraham Ortelius's work, "Thesaurus Geographicus", first suggested that Earth's continents were not always in their current locations.

Seafloor Spreading

• Harry H. Hess in 1962, gave Seafloor Spreading Theory.

• Seafloor Spreading is a process by which new oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean, due to divergent plate boundary. The magma erupts from beneath pushing the older crust away from the ridge in the centre.

Image summary: A diagram showing the geological process of seafloor spreading at a mid-ocean ridge. Magma rises from the asthenosphere through the lithosphere to create new oceanic crust, which then pushes older crust outward in opposite directions away from the ridge toward the continental crust. The takeaway is that new crust is continuously formed at the ridge, driving the movement of tectonic plates.

• Rocks equidistant from the mid oceanic ridge are of equal age, and their age increases as you move farther away from the ridge.

• Oceanic crust is younger than continental crust.

Relief features are of two types:

1. Major Relief Features

Four major relief features are there:

Continental Shelf leads to Continental Slope leads to Continental Rise Abyssal plain/Deep sea plains

2. Minor Relief Features

Eg. Seamount, Guyot (flat-topped seamount), Mid-Ocean ridge, Trench, Coral, Atoll, etcetera

Image summary: A map of the Atlantic Ocean showing the coastlines of the Americas to the west and Europe and Africa to the east, with a thick white line tracing the path of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The image illustrates the geological feature of the divergent plate boundary running north to south through the center of the ocean basin.

• The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a mid-ocean ridge located along the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, and part of the longest relief feature in the world.

• It got created due to divergent plate boundary.

• Continental Shelf is the shallowest part of the ocean, having a gradient of 1 degree or less.

• The gradient of the Continental Slope region varies between 2 degrees to 5 degrees.

Image summary: A diagram of ocean relief features showing the transition from land to the deep ocean floor. It labels the continental shelf, continental slope, submarine canyon, and continental rise moving seaward, and includes deep sea abyssal plains along with seafloor elevations like seamounts, abyssal hills, and guyots. The purpose of the diagram is to illustrate the diverse topographical structures and zones of the oceanic crust.

Relief Features of Ocean

Corals

• Corals are marine organisms known as “Rainforest of Sea”.

• They exist in symbiotic relationship with Zooxanthella algae. The corals secrete CaCO 3 that provides protection to the algae and in return the algae make food for the corals. • Corals exists in colonies.

Favourable Conditions Required for Corals to Survive

1. Saline water (they cannot survive in fresh water).

2. Sunlight.

3. Clear water.

4. Temperature (they require moderate temperature: 20 degrees to 32 degrees Celsius). volcanic island sinking island

Atoll: An atoll is a ring-shaped coral island or reef surrounding a central lagoon, formed from the growth of coral around a sinking volcanic island.

: Image summary: A diagram showing two views of a volcano in a body of water. The left side shows a conical volcano erupting smoke from its peak, while the right side shows a similar landmass with a central peak surrounded by a green ring of vegetation. The illustration depicts the different stages or components of volcanic island formation.

Image summary: A diagram comparing a barrier reef and an atoll. The barrier reef shows a shrinking island surrounded by a coral reef and a lagoon, while the atoll shows a circular coral reef surrounding a lagoon with the island completely submerged. The diagram depicts the progression of a sinking island as it evolves from a barrier reef into an atoll.

Great Barrier Reef in Australia is the largest barrier reef (colony of corals) in the world.

barrier reef

Coral Bleaching

• When water is too warm, corals will expel the algae (Zooxanthella) living in their tissues, causing the coral to turn completely white. Climate change is a major key factor in this change.

Facts

• Mariana Trench is the deepest part of the Pacific Ocean (11 kilometers).

• Challenger Deep is the deepest known point in Mariana Trench.

• Atlantic Ocean is the busiest ocean. Sargasso Sea is a

unique region in the Atlantic Ocean, which is a borderless sea (brown algae Sargassum is seen here).

Geomorphological Process

• Father of geomorphology-William Morris Davis.

• Geomorphology is a scientific discipline, concerned with description and classification of earth's topographic features. All geomorphologic process occur due to two types of forces: Endogenic Forces (internal) and Exogenic Forces (external).

Endogenic Processes

• These are geological processes that occur due to endogenous forces. All relief features on earth are subject to endogenous and exogenic forces. Example-

• Himalayas: They are continuously increasing (endogenic forces greater than exogenic forces).

• Aravali: They are continuously decreasing (exogenic forces are greater than endogenic forces).

→• Endogenic forces get their energy from within the earth (recall Convection Current Theory).

Effects of Endogenic Forces

1. Diastrophism: It is a process of deformation and movement of Earth's crust. These movements are responsible for shaping large-scale landforms over geological time periods.

Types of Diastrophism

a) Orogenic Process: It is a process through which mountains are built.

b) Epeirogenic Process: It involves upliftment or warping of large parts of the Earth's crust.

c) Earthquake: It involves shaking of Earth.

d) Plate Tectonics: It explains how major landforms are created as a result of Earth's subterranean movements.

2. Volcanoes: They are commonly described as openings/vents where lava or magma erupts.

Exogenic Processes

• These are geological processes that occur on the Earth's surface due to external forces (exogenic forces).

• Denudation refers to long-term processes that cause the wearing away of earth's surface, leading to a reduction in elevation and relief of landforms and landscapes.

• Exogenic agents are: Wind, glaciers, water.

• Source of energy for exogenic forces is the Sun.

Image summary: A flow diagram illustrating the Denudation Process, which is divided into three main components: Weathering, Mass Movements, and Erosion/Transportation. Weathering involves the breaking of rocks driven by gravitational, molecular, and chemical forces; Mass Movements are driven by gravitational force and are aided by weathering; and Erosion/Transportation is described as an ex-situ process driven by kinetic energy from agents like wind and water. The diagram shows how various driving forces and agents contribute to the overall process of denudation.

{Weathering}

• Weathering is the process of rocks and minerals breaking down or dissolving on the Earth's surface.

Types of Weathering

1. Physical Weathering: This involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice, and pressure. Examples-

Unloading and Expansion-When rocks deep inside the Earth are under very high pressure from the layers above them. When the upper layers erode away, the pressure decreases and the rock expands and cracks, forming sheets. Eg. Large granite rocks cracking into layers.

Frost Wedging-Water enters small cracks in rocks. When temperature drops, the water freezes and expands. This expansion pushes the rock apart, and repeated freezing and thawing eventually breaks the rock. Common in: Cold mountainous areas.

Salt Crystallisation-Salt water enters tiny cracks in rocks. When the water evaporates, salt crystals remain and grow inside the cracks. The growing crystals exert pressure and break the rock apart. Common in: Coastal areas and deserts.

2. Chemical Weathering: This involves the decomposition of rocks and soils through chemical reactions, such as oxidation and reduction, carbonation, solution, and hydration.

Solution: Occurs mainly in soft rocks which are made up of soluble minerals E.g. Nitrates, Sulfates, Potassium, and these get dissolved in water or acid or leaching takes place.

Eg. solution process can be seen in limestone where the CaCO 3 gets dissolved.

Hydration: Occurs in rocks made up of minerals that absorb water and expand, causing the rock to weaken or change into a new mineral.

3. Biological Weathering: It is also known as organic weathering, is the breakdown of rocks and soils through the activities of living organisms such as earthworms, rodents, etcetera Weathering is an in-situ process.

Effects of Weathering

1. Exfoliation: It is a process when large, curved plates, or slabs of rocks are stripped away from the outer surface of a rock mass. Eg. a large exfoliation dome in granite rock near Bhongir (Bhuvanagiri) town in Telangana.

Tor: Rounded hill like structure formed due to physical weathering (exfoliation), generally in granite rock.

[The exfoliation first turns a giant rock to an exfoliation dome, and after sometimes the rate of exfoliation declines, giving it a stable hill like structure that's Tor]

2. Mass Movements: It is the downslope movement of soil, rock, and other debris under the influence of gravity. Weathering is not a prerequisite.

Types:

-1. Rapid: Landslides (due to deforestation), avalanche, earthflow, mudflow (leads to soil liquefaction).

-2. Slow: Creep (slow down slope movement of particles), solifluction (slow progressive movement of mass down a slope seen mainly in temperate regions).

Erosion: It involves transportation of rock debris through geomorphic agents like running water, groundwater, glaciers, winds and waves.

Landforms

• Landforms are natural or human-made features on the Earth's surface. They include hills, mountains, plains, and more. The landforms are formed due to various agents such as river, glaciers, wind, sea waves, groundwater, etcetera

Types of Landforms

1. Erosional Landforms: They are created by the process of erosion.

2. Depositional Landforms: These are created when sediments are deposited in areas of reduced flow energy.

Landforms Created by River

• A river goes through three stages: Youthful, mature, and old. The course of a river includes the upper stage, the middle stage, and the lower stage.

Table: Columns: Youthful Stage, Mature Stage, Old Stage. Row 1. Youthful Stage: River flows with high speed. Eg. V-shaped valley, Gorges, Canyon, Waterfalls, Entrenched meander. Mature Stage: The river flows from high gradient to flat plain. Eg. Meanders. Old Stage: The final stage of river's journey Eg. Ox-bow lakes, Delta, Flood plains.

Table: Columns: Landforms, Definitions, Pictures. Row 1. Landforms: V-shaped Valley. Definitions: Narrow valley with steep sides formed by vertical river erosion.. Pictures: Image. Row 2. Landforms: Gorge. Definitions: Deep, narrow valley with very steep sides. Commonly developeds in hard, resistant rocks.. Pictures: Image. Row 3. Landforms: Canyon. Definitions: Large, deep gorge with layered rock sides. commonly form in horizontal sedimentary rock layers.. Pictures: Stratified rock with non uniform steep walls resistance to erosion Image. Row 4. Landforms: Plunge pool. Definitions: Deep hole created at the base of a plunge waterfall.. Pictures: Image.

Table: Columns: Penelplan, A nearly level plain formed due to prolonged erosion, reducing the land almost to its base level.. Row 1. Penelplan: Waterfall. A nearly level plain formed due to prolonged erosion, reducing the land almost to its base level.: A sudden vertical drop in a river, mainly due to the erosion of soft rock, which creates a steep fall.. Row 2. Penelplan: Cataract Waterfall. A nearly level plain formed due to prolonged erosion, reducing the land almost to its base level.: When waterfall forms where hard rock and soft rock create an uneven river bed, causing heavy, turbulent flow.. Row 3. Penelplan: Cascade Waterfall. A nearly level plain formed due to prolonged erosion, reducing the land almost to its base level.: A waterfall that consists of series of small falls where water flows over rocks or boulders (multi-step waterfalls).. Row 4. Penelplan: Plunge Waterfall. A nearly level plain formed due to prolonged erosion, reducing the land almost to its base level.: A waterfall where water falls straight down without touching the cliff face below. (Water velocity is very high).. Row 5. Penelplan: Potholes. A nearly level plain formed due to prolonged erosion, reducing the land almost to its base level.: Round holes in the river bed formed by swirling pebbles. (The process of wearing away rocks by friction of particles carried by a river is called Abrasion)..

Image summary: A photograph showing an aerial view of a wide river delta or coastal region with numerous channels of water cutting through flat land and islands. The image depicts a natural landscape of intersecting waterways and landmasses.

Image summary: A geological diagram illustrating the formation and retreat of a waterfall. The process begins with undercutting of softer rock beneath a layer of hard, resistant rock, which leads to the collapse of the overhanging ledge and the creation of a plunge pool. As this cycle of erosion and collapse repeats, the waterfall gradually retreats upstream, leaving behind vertical gorge-like sides. The diagram demonstrates how differential rock erosion drives the long-term migration of waterfall features.

Image summary: A photograph of a waterfall cascading down a rocky cliff into a dark pool of water, surrounded by dense green forest. It is a scenic landscape image with no analytical data to report.

Image summary: A photograph of a wide, cascading waterfall flowing over rocky ledges into a pool of turquoise water, surrounded by a dense forest of green trees. It is a nature photo depicting a scenic landscape.

Image summary: A photograph depicting a wide waterfall flowing over a rock ledge into a body of water, with a dense forest of green trees in the background. It is a landscape image with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: Two panels illustrating the formation of potholes in a riverbed. The top panel is a diagram showing water swirling in a vortex and carrying abrasive pebbles that erode the bedrock in a circular motion. The bottom panel is a photograph of actual deep, rounded potholes carved into a rock surface. The takeaway is that the mechanical action of swirling sediment in turbulent water creates these distinct cylindrical holes.

Table: Columns: Rapids, Fast, turbulent rivers flow horizontally over alternating hard rocks (resilient rock) and soft rocks (less resilient rock) creating step-like structure., Image. Row 1. Rapids: River terraces. Fast, turbulent rivers flow horizontally over alternating hard rocks (resilient rock) and soft rocks (less resilient rock) creating step-like structure.: Flat steps along a river valley that were once floodplains (areas where floods spread), but got left at a higher level when the river cut deeper into the land.. Image: Image. Row 2. Rapids: Entrenched Meander. Fast, turbulent rivers flow horizontally over alternating hard rocks (resilient rock) and soft rocks (less resilient rock) creating step-like structure.: Generally found in mountainous regions, where a river cuts deep into rock when uplifted land blocks its path, forming steep-sided meanders.. Image: Image.

• Erosional Landforms:

• Depositional Landforms:

Table: Columns: Landforms, Definitions, Pictures. Row 1. Landforms: Alluvial Fans. Definitions: A fan-shaped deposit of sediments formed where a river slows down suddenly on leaving a mountainous region.. Pictures: Narrow Mountain Canyon. Row 2. Landforms: Braided Channels. Definitions: A network of interweaving river channels formed due to heavy sediment deposition within the river.. Pictures: Image. Row 3. Landforms: Ox-Bow Lake. Definitions: A crescent shaped lake formed from a cut-off meander due to deposition sealing the ends.. Pictures: Image Image.

Image summary: A diagram showing a narrow mountain canyon that opens into a plain. A braided stream flows from the canyon, depositing sediment to form an alluvial fan. The image illustrates how water transports materials from high mountain elevations to deposit them in fan-shaped patterns upon reaching flat land.

Image summary: A diagram of a landscape showing a river that has shifted its course over time, with a straight line labeled "Before" and a winding blue path labeled "After." The illustration depicts the process of river meandering, where a straight watercourse evolves into a curving path.

Table: Columns: Meanders, Bends or loops in a river formed due to erosion on the outer bank (concave bank) and deposition on the inner bank (convex bank/point bar).. Row 1. Meanders: Point Bars. Bends or loops in a river formed due to erosion on the outer bank (concave bank) and deposition on the inner bank (convex bank/point bar).: Deposition of sediments on the inner side (convex bank) of a meander bend due to slower flow of water.. Image. Row 2. Meanders: Flood Plains. Bends or loops in a river formed due to erosion on the outer bank (concave bank) and deposition on the inner bank (convex bank/point bar).: Broad, flat areas along a river, formed by the deposition of fine sediments (alluvium) during repeated floods.. Image. Row 3. Meanders: Levees. Bends or loops in a river formed due to erosion on the outer bank (concave bank) and deposition on the inner bank (convex bank/point bar).: Raised embankments along river banks formed by deposition of heavier sediments during floods.. Image.

Landforms Created by Glaciers

• Erosional Landforms:

Table: Columns: Landforms, Definitions, Pictures. Row 1. Landforms: Cirque. Definitions: A bowl-shaped, steep-sided hollow formed at the head of a glacier due to erosion.. Pictures: Image. Row 2. Landforms: Tarn Lake. Definitions: A small lake formed when water fills up in a cirque.. Pictures: Image. Row 3. Landforms: Arete (Ridges). Definitions: A sharp, narrow ridge formed between two adjacent cirques due to glacial erosion.. Pictures: Image.

Table: Columns: Horn, A pointed, pyramid-like peak formed when three or more cirques erode a mountain from different sides., Image. Row 1. Horn: U shaped/ Glacial Valley. A pointed, pyramid-like peak formed when three or more cirques erode a mountain from different sides.: A wide, flat-bottomed "U" shaped valley with steep sides formed by glacier movement. (unlike narrow V-shaped river valleys).. Image: Image. Row 2. Horn: Hanging Valley. A pointed, pyramid-like peak formed when three or more cirques erode a mountain from different sides.: A smaller valley left above the main U-shaped glacial valley (often giving rise to waterfalls).. Image: Image. Row 3. Horn: Fjord. A pointed, pyramid-like peak formed when three or more cirques erode a mountain from different sides.: When sea water enters into the glacial valley.. Image: Image.

• Depositional Landforms:

Table: Columns: Landforms, Definitions, Pictures. Row 1. Landforms: Moraines. Definitions: Deposition of unsorted glacial debris (till) along the sides of a glacier.. Pictures: Image. Row 2. Landforms: Eskers. Definitions: A long, sinuous ridge of sand and gravel deposited by melted glacial water streams flowing beneath the glacier.. Pictures: Image. Row 3. Landforms: Outwash Plains. Definitions: A gently sloping plain of well-sorted sand and gravel deposited by glacial meltwater beyond the glacier.. Pictures: Image.

Table: Drumlins, An elongated, oval-shaped hill composed of glacial deposits (till), with its long axis parallel to ice flow. The upstream blunt end is called the stoss end and the downstream long & pointed end towards the flow of ice is called the tail or lee end. (Also known as “Basket of eggs topography”)., Image.

Landforms Created by Groundwater (also known as Karst

Topography

• The term “Karst” is derived from the Karst Plateau, which is located in south-western Slovenia and extends into north-eastern Italy.

These are formed due to the solution (weathering) of soluble rocks like limestone and dolomite, which are rich in calcium carbonate.

Image summary: A map showing the country of Slovenia and its surrounding neighbors, Austria, Hungary, Italy, and Croatia. A red oval highlights the Karst geographic region in the southwest, near the city of Trieste and the sea. The purpose of the map is to locate the Karst geographic region within Slovenia's regional context.

• Since these rocks and such landforms are widely found in the Karst plateau region, all such groundwater landforms are called karst topography.

• Karst Topography location in India-Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha, and parts of the Himalayas.

• Erosional Landforms:

Table: Columns: Landforms, Definitions, Pictures. Row 1. Landforms: Sinkholes. Definitions: Depressions formed on the surface due to the solution or collapse of limestone, allowing water to drain underground.. Pictures: Image. Row 2. Landforms: Swallow holes. Definitions: Openings in limestone surface, through which streams disappear underground.. Pictures: Image.

Table: Columns: Dolines, Sinkhole enlarges due to continued solution of limestone by groundwater, forming a larger, circular or oval depression, called doline., Image. Row 1. Dolines: Uvalas. Sinkhole enlarges due to continued solution of limestone by groundwater, forming a larger, circular or oval depression, called doline.: A large, widespread, irregular depression formed by the joining or merging of several sinkholes or dolines is called uvala (Sink valley).. Image: Image. Row 2. Dolines: Lapies. Sinkhole enlarges due to continued solution of limestone by groundwater, forming a larger, circular or oval depression, called doline.: Irregular grooves and ridges on limestone surface formed due to the dissolving action of water.. Image: Image. Row 3. Dolines: Limestone pavements. Sinkhole enlarges due to continued solution of limestone by groundwater, forming a larger, circular or oval depression, called doline.: flat, widespread limestone surface broken into blocks due to solution along joints by groundwater.. Image: Image. Row 4. Dolines: Caves. Sinkhole enlarges due to continued solution of limestone by groundwater, forming a larger, circular or oval depression, called doline.: Underground hollows formed by the solution action of groundwater in limestone rocks (often containing stalactites and stalagmites - the depositional landforms).. Image: Image Image.

Table: Columns: Landforms, Definitions, Image. Row 1. Pillars, A vertical structure formed when a stalactite and stalagmite join together..

Table: Columns: Stalactite, Elongated deposits of calcium carbonate hanging from the roof of caves, formed by dripping water. Hanging from the ceiling.. Row 1. Stalactite: Stalagmite. Elongated deposits of calcium carbonate hanging from the roof of caves, formed by dripping water. Hanging from the ceiling.: Cone-shaped deposits of calcium carbonate rising from the floor of caves, formed by accumulation of dripping water. Rising from the ground..

Aquifer:

Groundwater stored between layers of hard rock below the water table.

Image summary: A photograph of multiple translucent icicles of varying lengths hanging from a rocky ledge. This is a natural scene with no data or analytical results to report.

Image summary: A photograph depicting a group of tall, slender stalagmites rising from the floor of a cave. It is a descriptive image showing natural geological formations with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A diagram of a geological cross-section showing a river and lake feeding into an unconfined aquifer, which is separated from a deeper confined aquifer by a layer of clay. An artesian well penetrates both layers to reach the confined aquifer, where water is under pressure from the surrounding bedrock. This structure illustrates how a confined aquifer can force water upward through a well, often above the surrounding water table.

Landforms Created by Sea Waves

• Erosional Landforms:

Table: Columns: Landforms, Definitions, Pictures. Row 1. Landforms: Sea Cliff. Definitions: A steep rock face along the coast formed by continuous erosion by sea waves.. Pictures: Image. Row 2. Landforms: Sea Caves. Definitions: A hollow or cavity formed in coastal rocks due to continuous wave action along weak zones.. Pictures: Image. Row 3. Landforms: Sea Arch. Definitions: An arch-shaped opening formed when waves erode through a headland or cave.. Pictures: Image. Row 4. Landforms: Sea Stack. Definitions: An isolated, steep rock pillar in the sea formed when part of an arch collapses.. Pictures: Image.

Table: Columns: Landforms, Definitions, Pictures. Row 1. Landforms: Beaches. Definitions: An accumulation of sand, pebbles, and other sediments along the shore deposited by sea waves.. Pictures: Image. Row 2. Landforms: Spits. Definitions: A narrow, elongated ridge of sand projecting into the sea, formed by longshore drift.. Pictures: Image. Row 3. Landforms: Bars. Definitions: A ridge of sand deposited across a bay or river mouth, often cutting it off from the sea.. Pictures: Image. Row 4. Landforms: Barriers. Definitions: A long, narrow offshore ridge of sand running parallel to the coast, formed by wave deposition.. Pictures: Image. Row 5. Landforms: Lagoon. Definitions: A shallow water body separated from the sea by a bar or spit.. Pictures: Image. Row 6. Landforms: Tombolo. Definitions: A ridge of sand or other deposits connecting an island to the mainland.. Pictures: Image. Row 7. Landforms: Coastal sand dunes. Definitions: Mounds or ridges of sand formed near the coast are called coastal dunes.. Pictures: Image.

Landforms Created by Wind (also known as Aeolian Landforms)

• Erosional Landforms:

Table: Columns: Landforms, Definitions, Pictures. Row 1. Landforms: Yardang. Definitions: Long, narrow ridges separated by grooves, formed due to wind erosion along the direction of prevailing winds.. Row 2. Image.

Table: Columns: Mushroom rocks, A rock with a narrow base and broad top, formed due to faster erosion of lower soft rock layers than upper hard rock layers by wind (Also known as pedestal rocks).. Row 1. Mushroom rocks: Zeugen. A rock with a narrow base and broad top, formed due to faster erosion of lower soft rock layers than upper hard rock layers by wind (Also known as pedestal rocks).: Tabular rock masses with a flat top and steep sides, formed due to differential wind erosion of hard and soft rock layers.. Row 2. Mushroom rocks: Playa. A rock with a narrow base and broad top, formed due to faster erosion of lower soft rock layers than upper hard rock layers by wind (Also known as pedestal rocks).: A shallow, flat-floored depression in desert regions where water collects temporarily and dries up, leaving behind salts and fine sediments.. Image. Row 3. Mushroom rocks: Pediplain. A rock with a narrow base and broad top, formed due to faster erosion of lower soft rock layers than upper hard rock layers by wind (Also known as pedestal rocks).: A broad, nearly level erosional surface formed after prolonged erosion in arid regions by the merging of several pediments.. Row 4. Mushroom rocks: Inselberg (Monadnock). A rock with a narrow base and broad top, formed due to faster erosion of lower soft rock layers than upper hard rock layers by wind (Also known as pedestal rocks).: An isolated, steep-sided residual hill rising abruptly in a pediplain region.. Image.

• Depositional Landforms:

Image summary: A photo of a mushroom rock, showing a wide, flat rock cap resting on a narrower, lighter-colored pedestal of rock. This is an example of a depositional landform, where differential erosion has left a more resistant cap rock atop a softer base.

Image summary: A photograph showing a solitary, layered rock formation standing in a flat, desert landscape. The figure depicts a depositional landform, illustrating how layers of sediment accumulate and are subsequently shaped by erosion.

Image summary: A photograph of a desert landscape featuring rocky, depositional landforms with two prominent hills in the background and a rugged, uneven foreground. The image illustrates the characteristic appearance of depositional landforms in an arid environment.

Table: Columns: Landforms, Definitions, Pictures. Row 1. Landforms: - Sand dunes/ Loess. Definitions: When the grains of sand are very fine and light, the wind can carry it over a very long distance, such sand gets deposited in large areas and is called Loess or sand dunes.. Row 2. Image.

Table: Columns: Barchans, Crescent shaped dunes whose points or wings are directed away from wind direction. They are found in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan., Image. Row 1. Barchans: Seif. Crescent shaped dunes whose points or wings are directed away from wind direction. They are found in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.: Similar to Barchans with only one wing.. Image: Image. Row 2. Barchans: Parabolic dunes. Crescent shaped dunes whose points or wings are directed away from wind direction. They are found in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.: Sand dunes (also in crescent shape) form opposite to wind's direction, mainly because of the presence of vegetation.. Image: Image. Row 3. Barchans: Transverse dunes. Crescent shaped dunes whose points or wings are directed away from wind direction. They are found in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.: Sand dunes formed perpendicular to the direction of wind.. Image: Image. Row 4. Barchans: Longitudinal dunes. Crescent shaped dunes whose points or wings are directed away from wind direction. They are found in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.: Sand dunes formed parallel to the direction of wind.. Image: Image. Row 5. Barchans: Oasis. Crescent shaped dunes whose points or wings are directed away from wind direction. They are found in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.: Small fertile land with water source in arid region.. Image: Image.

Atmosphere

• The atmosphere is a mixture of gases surrounding Earth, held in place by Earth's gravity.

Evolution of the Atmosphere

1. Loss of Primordial Atmosphere: Initially composed of hydrogen and helium, however this atmosphere was lost due to excessive solar flares.

2. Volcanism: The hot interior of Earth released gases through volcanic eruptions to form a new atmosphere (Degassing).

3. Biological Modification: Plants and living organisms played a key role in further transforming the atmosphere through Photosynthesis.

Different Layers of Atmosphere

Troposphere to (Tropos: Region of mixing)

• Troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere.

• All weather phenomena (rain, storms, clouds, etcetera) occur in this layer.

Composition of Gases

Height variation

• At poles: 8 kilometers

• At equator: 18 kilometers

• Nitrogen N 2: 78%

• Oxygen O 2: 21%

Argon (Ar): 0.9%

Carbon dioxide (C-O 2): 0.036%

Neon (Ne): 0.0018%

• Helium (He): 0.00052%

Average: 13 kilometers Temperature at Tropopause

• At Equator: -80 degrees Celsius

• At Poles: minus 45 degrees Celsius

• A tropopause is a line that separates Troposphere from Stratosphere.

• As we move upwards in the atmosphere, the density of the air decreases, and that is why the densest air is found in Troposphere.

: Image summary: A diagram of Earth's atmosphere divided into five concentric layers, showing air temperature and common objects in each. From lowest to highest, the Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, and Exosphere show fluctuating temperature ranges, with the Exosphere reaching 1200°C. Objects such as hot air balloons and planes reside in the Troposphere, while satellites and spaceships occupy the Thermosphere and Exosphere. The diagram illustrates the vertical structure of the atmosphere and how temperature and human activity vary by altitude.

- Lapse rate is the rate at which temperature decreases with altitude in the atmosphere.

Standard Lapse Rate

• 165 meters leads to a 1 degree Celsius decrease

• 1 kilometer leads to a 6.5 degrees Celsius decrease

• Reason for temperature drop: The atmosphere doesn't heat directly from solar radiation (insolation). Instead, the Earth's surface absorbs solar energy and re-emits it as long-wave infrared radiation (terrestrial radiation). This radiation warms the air near the surface.

As altitude increases, the air receives less terrestrial radiation, so the temperature drops with height.

• Negative Lapse Rate - Temperature increases with altitude.

• Positive Lapse Rate - Temperature decreases with Altitude.

Effects of Insolation

• At Equator: Insolation is less here, due to presence of clouds.

• At Tropics: Insolation is maximum here due to minimal cloud covering. Eg. Desert.

Factors influencing Insolation include:

1. Transparency of the atmosphere

2. Length of the day

3. Earth's tilt and Rotation

4. Latitude

Key Greenhouse Gases 5. Altitude

6. Position of Earth

7. Surface reflection (Albedo)

• Greenhouse gases keep earth warm by trapping heat in the atmosphere.

• Key greenhouse gases: Water vapor, C-O 2, C.H 4 (Methane), N 2 O (Nitrous Oxide), O 3 (Ozone).

Heat Transfer Mechanism

• The transfer of heat in • no 2 and so 2 are not a Greenhouse gas.

the atmosphere occurs through three primary mechanisms: Conduction, Convection, and Advection.

• Conduction: The process by which heat is transferred directly from one molecule to another without actual movement of air.

• Convection: The vertical transfer of heat through the movement of air masses.

• Advection: The horizontal transfer of heat due to the movement of air. Eg. Loo is a result of advection.

Albedo

• Albedo refers to the proportion of incident light or radiation that is reflected by a surface.

Highest albedo is seen in ice caps or glaciers.

Albedo Values of Different Surfaces and Clouds

Table: Columns: Earth surface, (%), Clouds, (%). Row 1. Earth surface: Oceans, Lakes. (%): 8. Clouds: Shallow broken clouds. (%): 30. Row 2. Cu, Ci, Cs, Cc, 35. Row 3. Earth surface: Land Surfaces. (%): 14 to 18. Clouds: St. (%): 40. Row 4. Earth surface: Sand, Desert. (%): 27. Clouds: Thick clouds (Cs). (%): 74. Row 5. Earth surface: Ice and Snow. (%): 50 - 70. Clouds: Ac, As, Sc. (%): 68. Row 6. Earth surface: Sea ice. (%): 35. Clouds: Cu. (%): 75. Row 7. Earth surface: Old snow. (%): 59. Clouds: Ns. (%): 85. Row 8. Earth surface: Fresh snow. (%): 80. Clouds: Cb. (%): 90. Row 9. Earth surface: Asphalt (lowest). (%): 5 - 10.

Heat Budget

• A heat budget is the balance between the heat that the Earth absorbs from the sun and the heat that it radiates back into space.

Temperature Inversion

।Image summary: A flow diagram of the Heat Budget of Earth showing how 100% of incoming solar energy is distributed. 35% is reflected back into space, while 65% is absorbed, with 14% absorbed by the atmosphere and 51% absorbed by Earth's surface. The diagram illustrates the partition of solar radiation between reflection and absorption by the planet and its atmosphere.

• A phenomenon where temperature increases with height instead of decreasing.

• Temperature inversion leads to stability, means - No Rain.

Favourable Conditions for Temperature Inversion

1. Long winter night: During long nights, the Earth's surface loses heat rapidly through radiation, cooling the air near the surface.

2. Still air: Calm and stable air prevents the mixing of cold surface air with warmer air above, maintaining the inversion layer.

3. Clear cloudless sky: Clear skies enhance heat loss from the surface through terrestrial radiation, promoting rapid cooling and inversion formation.

Stratosphere (upto 50 kilometers)

• This layer of atmosphere contains the Ozone layer (30 to 35 kilometers above Earth's surface), which protects from harmful U.V rays (B and C).

• While moving upwards, temperature increases with altitude, due to the absorption of ultraviolet (U.V) radiation by ozone, which releases heat and creates a stable thermal inversion.

Jet planes fly in this layer.

• Stratopause divides Stratosphere and Mesosphere.

• U.V-A rays which are less harmful mostly pass from the Ozone.

• Ozone Day is celebrated on 16 September to commemorate the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987 in Montreal, Canada. This international agreement aimed to phase out Chlorofluorocarbons (C.F.C's), which deplete the ozone layer and contribute to the formation of the ozone hole.

• Ozone layer thickness is measured in Dobson unit.

• Kigali Amendment was made to phase out H.F.C's (Hydrofluorocarbons).

Mesosphere (upto 85 kilometers)

• It is the coldest layer of atmosphere.

- Meteors burn up in the mesosphere because the air there is dense enough to compress and heat up in front of them, making their surfaces vaporize.

• While moving upwards, temperature decreases with altitude.

Thermosphere (between 80 to 400 kilometers)

• It is the hottest layer of atmosphere.

• While moving upwards, temperature increases with altitude.

• It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is also known as the ionosphere.

• Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.

Karman Line

• It is an imaginary boundary located 100 kilometers (about 62 miles) above sea level that separates Earth's atmosphere from outer space.

Exosphere

• It is the 5th and last layer of atmosphere. Mostly composed of Hydrogen and Helium.

• Isotherm Line: These are lines or points on map/chart of the Earth's surface connecting points having same temperature at a given time.

Water on Earth

• 97.2% of Earth's water is saline; only 2.8% is freshwater.

• Out of 2.8% freshwater: Ice caps/glaciers (2%), Groundwater (0.68%), Lakes (0.4%), Atmosphere, River.

• As a whole (Freshwater): Ice caps/glaciers (68.7%), groundwater (30.1%).

71% of Earth's surface covered with water

29% of Earth's surface is covered with land

Image summary: A series of three nested bar charts showing the distribution of Earth's water. The first chart shows total global water is overwhelmingly oceans at 96.5%, with only 2.5% freshwater. The second chart breaks down that freshwater, showing glaciers and ice caps hold 68.7% and groundwater 30.1%. The third chart further divides surface and other freshwater, where ground ice and permafrost are the largest share at 69.0%, followed by lakes and soil moisture. The overall point is that the vast majority of Earth's water is saline, and most of the remaining freshwater is locked in ice or underground.

{Humidity}

• Humidity is the concentration of water vapour present in the air.

{Types}

1. Absolute Humidity: It is the total mass of water vapor present in a unit volume of air at a given temperature.

2. Relative Humidity: Actual moisture percentage compared to maximum capacity.

Absolute humidity is higher in warm air compared to cold air. This is because warm air can hold more water vapor due to its higher energy level.

{Water Cycle}

• Water cycle is the continuous movement of water between the Earth's atmosphere and surface.

{Evaporation}

• Evaporation is a process in the water cycle that changes liquid water into water vapour.

Latent Heat of Vaporization

Image summary: A diagram of the water cycle showing water moving from the ocean through evaporation and transpiration into the atmosphere, where it undergoes condensation to form clouds. This leads to precipitation over land, where water then travels via surface flow back to the ocean or sinks as percolation into groundwater. The figure illustrates the continuous movement of water between the earth's surface and atmosphere.

- The amount of heat energy required to change a unit mass of a liquid into a gas at a constant temperature is called latent heat of vaporization.

Precipitation

• Precipitation is any liquid or frozen water that forms in the atmosphere and falls back to the earth in the form of rain, snow or hail.

Types of Precipitation

1. Rain: Liquid water droplet that fall when the air temperature is above freezing point.

2. Snow: Frozen water crystals that are formed when temperature is below freezing point.

Image summary: A four-panel grid illustrating different types of precipitation. The top-left panel shows rain falling from a cloud, the top-right shows snow falling over mountains, the bottom-left shows rain falling onto brown soil, and the bottom-right shows hail falling onto green grass. The figure serves to visually distinguish between rain, snow, and hail.

3. Sleet: Small pellets of ice that forms when raindrops freeze before reaching the surface.

4. Hail: It is a type of precipitation that falls to the ground in the form of ice balls or lumps. Concentric rings are seen in Hailstone.

Sleet

Condensation

• It is the process where water vapour (gas) becomes water (liquid).

Different forms:

• Dew: It is the moisture that form as a result of condensation.

• {Fog} : In winter, due to temperature inversion, cold air (which has low moisture-holding capacity) becomes saturated, and water vapour condenses near the ground, forming a low-level cloud called fog and has visibility less than 1 kilometers.

In fog and mist, water vapor condenses around hygroscopic nuclei (aerosols like dust and smoke particles) instead of requiring a solid surface

• {Mist:} It is a phenomenon caused by small droplets of water suspended in the cold air, usually by condensation. Mist contains more moisture than fog, and has visibility more than 1 kilometers.

• Frost: It forms when water vapor (gas) directly turns into solid ice crystals without becoming liquid first.

• Radiation fog: Forms when the ground cools overnight and chills the air above it. Eg. Valleys and low-lying areas.

• Advection fog: Forms when warm, moist air moves over a cooler surface. Eg. Coastal regions and plains.

• Smog: Smog is a type of air pollution that results from the combination of smoke and fog.

Dew Point

- The dew point is the temperature at which air becomes fully saturated with moisture, causing water vapor to condense into liquid droplets and it deposits on the surface.

• In winter air cools down due to which dew point reduces, water vapour condenses into water.

{Cloud seeding}

Cloud seeding is a weather modification technique that involves dispersing substances like silver iodide, dry ice, or salts into clouds to increase the amount of precipitation that falls, such as rain or snow.

Image summary: A diagram illustrating the process of cloud seeding. An aircraft injects silver iodide or other substances into the atmosphere, where these chemicals mimic particles that serve as condensation surfaces to create water droplets; once these droplets become large enough, rain falls. The diagram depicts a human-led method for inducing precipitation.

An aircraft injects silver iodide or other substances into the atmosphere

Clouds

The chemicals mimic the particles that serve as surfaces for condensation that creates water dr

• Clouds are visible masses of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the Earth's atmosphere. Clouds formed through the collision–coalescence process.

• Isoneph: Line drawn on map, connecting the points containing same amount of clouds.

Different Types of Clouds

Table: Columns: Clouds, Features, Height. Row 1. Clouds: Nimbus. Features: Rain bearing; Opaque; Grey. Height: Low-level. Row 2. Clouds: Stratus. Features: Layered clouds. Height: Low-level. Row 3. Clouds: Cumulus. Features: Wool/Cauliflower shaped; flat base. Height: 4000 to 7000 m Middle level.

Table: Columns: Cirrus, Feather shaped clouds, do not cause rain, 8000 to 12000 m High altitude. Row 1. Cirrus: Cumulonimbus (anvil top). Feather shaped clouds, do not cause rain: Produce stormy weather that contribute to cyclones. 8000 to 12000 m High altitude: Extensive vertical development.

Image summary: A diagram illustrating various cloud types categorized by altitude into high, mid, and low levels. High-level clouds include Cirrostratus, Cirrocumulus, and Cirrus; mid-level clouds include Altostratus and Altocumulus; and low-level clouds include Nimbostratus, Stratocumulus, Stratus, and Cumulus. A large Cumulonimbus cloud spans all three levels, ending in an anvil shape and producing precipitation. The diagram demonstrates the diversity of cloud structures and identifies the Cumulonimbus as the primary driver of convectional rainfall.

Rainfall

• Rainfall is the amount of water that falls from the atmosphere as precipitation over a specific period and area.

Types of Rainfall

• Convectional Rainfall It occurs when the surface of earth is heated up by the Sun.

• Orographic / Relief Rainfall Precipitation that occurs when moist air is forced to rise over a mountain range.

Windward and Leeward Side of Orographic Rainfall

-1. Windward Side (wet side): This side of the mountain facing the wind (mostly affected by Anabatic wind) receives the heavy rainfall as the air rises and cools there. Eg. Western sides of Western Ghats (Mumbai (Maharashtra) and Mangalore (Karnataka)).

- —2. {Leeward Side} (dry side): This side of the mountain faces away from the wind (mostly affected by Katabatic wind) receives less rainfall because the air loses its moisture on the windward side before descending dry. It is also called a rain-shadow region. Eg. Eastern side of Western Ghats (Vidarbh (Maharashtra) and Bangalore (Karnataka)).

• Frontal/Cyclonic Rainfall: It is a type of precipitation that occurs when warm, moist air meets cold, dry air mass.

Image summary: A diagram depicting convectional rainfall, showing warm air rising via vertical arrows from the ground to a cloud, which then releases rain. The structure illustrates the process by which surface heating drives moisture upward to form clouds and precipitation.

Image summary: A diagram illustrating orographic rainfall, showing air flowing upward along the slope of a mountain into a cloud. This process causes moisture-laden air to rise and cool, resulting in precipitation on the windward side of the mountain.

Image summary: A diagram depicting cyclonic rainfall, showing a blue cloud raining over brown land with air currents represented by arrows flowing toward the center and upward into the cloud. This illustrates the mechanism of air convergence and ascent that leads to precipitation in a cyclonic system.

Image summary: A diagram illustrating the process of orographic lift. Warm, moist air from the ocean is pushed by prevailing winds up a mountain slope as anabatic winds, where it cools and condenses to form clouds and precipitation. On the opposite side of the peak, the air descends as katabatic winds, warming and drying out to create a rain shadow. The takeaway is that mountains act as physical barriers that force precipitation on the windward side, leaving the leeward side arid.

Windward and Leeward Side of Mountain

Wind and Pressure Difference

• Wind blows because of differences in air pressure in the Earth's atmosphere. Air moves from high pressure to low pressure. The sun heats the Earth unevenly, so some places get warmer than others. At the Equator, there is generally low air pressure due to the rising of warm and light air;

while at the Poles, there is high air pressure because of the sinking of cold and dense air.

Types of Wind

Local Winds

Permanent Winds

1. Local Winds: Local winds are winds that blow over short distances and are typically caused

A wind is named based on the direction from which it originates.

Image summary: A diagram illustrating the movement of air between two regions. On the left, cold air is associated with high pressure and downward arrows, while on the right, warm air is associated with low pressure and upward arrows; a green arrow indicates air flow moving from the high-pressure cold region toward the low-pressure warm region. The diagram demonstrates that air naturally flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.

by local geographic features and temperature differences in specific areas.

2. Permanent Winds: Permanent winds, also known as planetary winds, are winds that blow consistently from the same direction throughout the year, moving air across large areas of earth.

• Types of Permanent Winds:

(a) Trade Winds

(b) Westerlies

(c) Polar Easterlies

Movement of Air

Trade Winds:

towards Northern Easterlies

Southern Easterlies

Trade winds blow from subtropical high-pressure areas to the equatorial low-pressure belt. They are permanent winds.

Image summary: A diagram of global surface wind bands showing the atmospheric circulation cells and pressure belts of Earth. The model illustrates how air rises from low-pressure belts at the equator and subpolar latitudes, and descends at high-pressure belts at the poles and subtropics, creating the Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells. This circulation drives the prevailing winds, including the trade winds near the equator and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes, establishing the planet's fundamental weather and wind patterns.

Easterlies and Westerlies

• They are steady winds that blow from east to west near the Earth's equator.

Location

• They are found between approximately 30 degrees latitude (north and south) and the equator.

• They blow from northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and southeast in the Southern Hemisphere towards the equator.

{Cause}

• They are created due to Coriolis effect (rotation of the Earth) and the unequal heating of the Earth's surface.

Westerlies

• Westerlies are winds that blow

When the barometric readings suddenly decrease, it indicates that the weather will be very stormy.

from west to east in the mid-latitudes.

Location

• They blow between 30 degrees and 60 degrees latitude (in both hemispheres).

• They come from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere.

{Cause}

• The Coriolis effect causes these winds to deflect towards the east.

Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties, Shrieking Sixties

• These are names given to strong Westerly winds in Southern Hemisphere that blow over the 40 degrees South, 50 degrees South, and 60 degrees South latitudes. Reason for their high speed is less landmass

in Southern Hemisphere.

Coriolis Force

• Coriolis force is an apparent force that is caused due to rotation of Earth.

• The Coriolis force is responsible for deflecting winds towards the right in the

Northern Hemisphere and towards the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

• Coriolis force is maximum at the Poles and zero at the Equator.

• The Coriolis force is directly dependent on the wind speed. The faster the wind moves, the stronger the Coriolis force becomes and greater is the wind deflection.

Geostrophic Wind

• Geostrophic wind is the wind that blows when two forces, the pressure gradient force and Earth's coriolis force, balance each other out.

Image summary: A diagram of upper-level wind showing the interaction between pressure gradient force and Coriolis force. The pressure gradient force acts from high pressure (700 mb) toward low pressure (688 mb), while the Coriolis force acts in the opposite direction; these two opposing forces balance to result in wind flowing parallel to the isobars. The takeaway is that geostrophic wind is created by the equilibrium between the pressure gradient and Coriolis forces.

• The wind moves parallel to isobars (isobars are lines on a weather map that connect areas with the same air pressure) or perpendicular to Pressure Gradient Force, without changing direction, usually higher up in the atmosphere where there's less friction.

Upper-level wind (no friction)

I.T.C.Z, Doldrums, and Horse Latitude

• Full form: Intertropical Convergence Zone

• The I.T.C.Z forms where the northeast trade winds from the Northern Hemisphere meet the southeast trade winds from the Southern Hemisphere.

• It is typically found between the • Wind direction is

measured using: Wind vane

• Wind speed is measured

using: Anemometer

• Humidity is measured using: Hygrometer

Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. In the month of July it is located at 20 degrees North to 25 degrees North.

Movement of I.T.C.Z

• The I.T.C.Z moves seasonally, following the sun's position.

• In the Northern Hemisphere, it moves north in the summer and south in the winter.

- The I.T.C.Z moves more north and south over land than over water because the ocean heats up more slowly as compared to land.

Doldrums

• The Doldrums is a low pressure area around the Equator where the prevailing winds are calm.

• They are found between 10 degrees North and 10 degrees South.

• The Doldrums overlap with the I.T.C.Z region.

Horse Latitude

• Horse latitudes are regions located about 30 degrees North and 30 degrees South of the equator.

• It is an area of subtropical high.

• It is a high-pressure area at divergence of trade winds and westerlies.

• They are characterized by Sunny skies, calm winds, and a very little precipitation.

Local Winds

Types of Local Winds

Table: Columns: Winds, Warm/Cold Wind, Place where it Blows. Row 1. Winds: Chinook. Warm/Cold Wind: It is warm, dry wind and is also known as Snow eaters because it melt snow cover.. Place where it Blows: Canada, eastern side of Rockies. Row 2. Winds: Sirocco. Warm/Cold Wind: It is warm, hot and dry wind. It also cruses “blood rain”.. Place where it Blows: North Africa. Row 3. Winds: Foehn. Warm/Cold Wind: It is warm and dry wind.. Place where it Blows: Southern Alps mountain. Row 4. Winds: Khamsin. Warm/Cold Wind: It is hot, dry and dusty wind.. Place where it Blows: Egypt. Row 5. Winds: Harmattan. Warm/Cold Wind: They are dry, dusty warm winds. These winds are also known as “Dr. Wind”.. Place where it Blows: Gulf of Guinea. Row 6. Winds: Brickfielder. Warm/Cold Wind: It is hot, dry and dusty wind.. Place where it Blows: Australia.

Table: Columns: Blizzard, They are very cold and carry snow., Canada & Siberia. Row 1. Blizzard: Mistral. They are very cold and carry snow.: These are strong, cold and dry winds.. Canada & Siberia: France. Row 2. Blizzard: Bora. They are very cold and carry snow.: These are strong and cold winds.. Canada & Siberia: Adriatic Sea. Row 3. Blizzard: Pampero. They are very cold and carry snow.: These are cold winds.. Canada & Siberia: Pampas region, Argentina.

Image summary: A world map illustrating the names and directions of various regional winds across different continents. It labels specific warm and cold winds, such as the Chinook in North America, the Sirocco in Africa, and the Buran in Asia, with arrows indicating their flow. The map serves as a global reference for named wind patterns.

Land Breeze and Sea Breeze

• Land Breeze and Sea Breeze are types of local winds that are due to temperature difference between land and water.

Land Breeze

• It occurs at night when land cools faster than sea, creating high-pressure over land and low pressure over the sea.

causing air to move from land to sea; more common in autumn and winter (land cools down fast because of its low specific heat).

Sea Breeze

• It occurs during the day when land heats up faster than the sea, creating low pressure over land and high-pressure over the sea, causing air to move from sea to land; more common in spring and summer.

Image summary: A diagram illustrating a land breeze at night, showing a blue arrow representing a cool land breeze blowing from the cooler land toward the warmer sea, while a red arrow shows warm air returning from the sea toward the land. This cycle demonstrates how temperature differences between land and sea at night drive local wind patterns.

Image summary: A diagram depicting the mechanism of a sea breeze during the day. The sun warms the land more than the sea, causing warm air to rise from the land and flow inland, while a cool sea breeze flows from the cooler ocean toward the shore to replace it. The point is that temperature differences between land and sea create a localized wind pattern flowing from the water to the land during the day.

Cyclone

• Cyclones are rotating mass of air.

• They are large, powerful storm that forms over warm ocean waters, with strong winds and heavy rain.

Formation of Tropical Cyclones

• Cyclones form when warm, moist air rises over the ocean. As the air rises, it creates low pressure, and cooler air rushes in to replace it. The Earth's rotation causes the air to spin, and the storm grows stronger. When the storm gets big enough, it becomes a cyclone with strong winds and heavy rain.

• A cyclone rotates anti-clockwise in Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in Southern Hemisphere.

Image summary: A diagram of a tropical cyclone showing the movement of air and water. Warm, moist air is drawn into the center, with strong surface winds creating a storm surge, while air rises through the eye wall within cumulonimbus clouds to a cirrus canopy, where winds then spiral outwards. The structure illustrates how heat and moisture from the ocean fuel the storm's powerful wind and rain systems.

Favorable Conditions for Formation of Tropical Cyclone

- Large sea surface temperature (27 degrees Celsius)

• Atmospheric Instability

• Coriolis Force

- Pre-existing weak low pressure area

Formation of Temperate Cyclone:

During cyclone,

Cumulonimbus clouds are formed with extensive vertical development.

• Mid-latitude cyclones or temperate cyclones or extratropical cyclones occur due to frontogenesis.

• They originate due to convergence of polar easterly cold air mass and sub-tropical westerly warm air mass in sub-polar low pressure belts around 60 degrees to 65 degrees latitudes.

• Since the air masses are of two different properties, they can't intermingle readily. They mix with each other very slowly. As a result, a front develops between them.

Image summary: A diagram illustrating the structure of a storm system moving from left to right, showing a cold front followed by a warm front. The cold front pushes cold air under warm air, creating towering cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds with heavy showers; the warm front sees warm air gliding over cool air, creating stratus and nimbostratus clouds with moderate to light showers. This illustrates how different frontal boundaries produce distinct cloud types and precipitation patterns.

: Image summary: Two diagrams illustrating different types of weather fronts. The left panel shows an occluded front where advancing cold air pushes warm air upward and over a pre-existing pocket of cool air. The right panel shows a stationary front where a cold air mass and a warm air mass meet but neither is strong enough to move the other. The diagrams illustrate the interaction between air masses of different temperatures and the resulting atmospheric structures.

Frontogenesis: It involves convergence of two distinct air masses.

Frontolysis: It involves Weakening or Destruction of a Front.

Different Names of Cyclones around the World

• Hurricane: Atlantic Ocean

Typhoon: South China Sea and Western Pacific Ocean

• Willy-Willy: Australia

• Cyclone: India

Cyclone names are decided by regional committees, like the W.M.O/E.S.C.A.P Panel on Tropical Cyclones for the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, that use pre-approved, sequentially assigned lists of names which are given by total 13 countries.

• Bay of Bengal (B.O.B) experiences more Cyclones than Arabian Sea because of several reasons

It is surrounded by landmass which leads to more heat transfer in B.O.B.

It is Funnel shaped, hence wind rushes in B.O.B from all directions.

More Fresh water Influx.

Monsoonal trough.

Tropical and Temperate Cyclone (Extra-Tropical Cyclone)

Table: Columns: Tropical Cyclone, Temperate Cyclone. Row 1. Tropical Cyclone: They originate over sea. Temperate Cyclone: They originate over sea and land. Row 2. Tropical Cyclone: They are formed due to certain favourable condition over the sea, as mentioned above. Temperate Cyclone: They are formed due to frontogenesis that is where the warm and cold air mass meet each other. Row 3. Tropical Cyclone: They cover less area but cause major destruction. Temperate Cyclone: They cover large area but cause less destruction. Row 4. Tropical Cyclone: They occur rarely. Temperate Cyclone: They occur frequently. Row 5. Tropical Cyclone: They move from east to west. Temperate Cyclone: They move from west to east.

Cyclones form in every ocean except - South Atlantic Ocean & South Eastern Pacific Ocean.

Cyclones do not form in the Equator as there is a lack of Coriolis Force at Equator.

Anticyclone

• An anticyclone is formed around an area of high pressure where the air sinks, causing clear skies and calm weather. It usually brings dry, sunny conditions.

• An anticyclone rotates clockwise in Northern Hemisphere and anti-clockwise in Southern Hemisphere.

Ocean Currents

• Ocean currents are large movements of water in the ocean that flow in a specific direction.

• Ocean water moves in two directions: horizontally and vertically.

• Horizontal movements are referred to as currents, while vertical changes are called upwellings or downwellings.

Thermohaline Circulation: It is a global ocean current system driven by differences in seawater temperature and salinity, which affect its density. This process, often called the "global conveyor belt".

Reasons for Movement of Ocean Currents

1. Wind

2. Density difference

3. Gravity

4. Coriolis force

5. Coast line

• Cold water moves from Poles to Equator.

• Warm water moves from Equator to Poles.

Image summary: A world map diagram showing the global system of ocean currents, with red arrows representing warm currents and blue arrows representing cold currents. Warm currents generally move from the equator toward the poles, while cold currents flow from high latitudes back toward the equator, forming large circular patterns called gyres in the North and South Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. The point is to illustrate the global thermohaline circulation that redistributes heat across the planet.

Warm and Cold Ocean Currents Warm Currents

Trick to Remember

Table: Columns: B, P, G, O, L. Row 1. B: Benguela. P: Peru/Humbold. G: Greenland. O: Oyashio. L: Labrador. Row 2. B: F. P: World. G: Cup. L: California. Row 3. B: Falkland. P: West Australian Drift. G: Canary. L: California. Row 4. Warm Ocean Currents.

• Brazil, Mozambique, Agulhas, Gulf Stream, Alaska, Norwegian, Kuroshio and E. Australia.

Effects of Ocean Currents

1. Cold ocean currents: They largely contribute to the formation of coastal deserts in west coast regions of tropical and sub-tropical continents. This is because the cold water makes the air above it cooler and less able to hold moisture.

2. Warm ocean currents plus Cold ocean currents: Together they create best fishing zones due to deposition of planktons. The meeting of warm and cold ocean currents also creates fog that is dangerous for harbouring.

Image summary: A world map highlighting the distribution of desserts, categorized by color into hot deserts and cold deserts. Hot deserts, such as the Sahara, Arabian, and Great Australian deserts, are concentrated mainly in the subtropics, while cold deserts, including the Gobi and Central Asian deserts, are located further north in Asia. The map indicates that the Atacama Desert in South America is the world's driest desert.

Thermocline is the point below which temperature declines suddenly.

Halocline is the point below which salinity increases rapidly in sea.

Gyre: A system of ocean currents rotating in a circular pattern, by coriolis force.

Desert around the world

Some Facts About India

• India was a part of Gondwana land and is situated in continent of Asia.

• In terms of area: 7th (India occupies 2.4% of the world's area).

• In terms of population: 1st (17.7% of world's population lives in India).

Rank of countries around the world in terms of area

Table: Columns: 1. Russia, India has 28 States and 8 Union Territories. Row 1. 2. Canada, Area, State, UT. Row 2. 3. China, Largest, Rajasthan, Ladakh. Row 3. 4. USA, Smallest, Goa, Lakshadweep. Row 4. 5. Brazil, Population. Row 5. 6. Australia, Largest, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi. Row 6. 7. India, Smallest, Sikkim, Lakshadweep. Row 7. 8. Argentina.

Extreme Points in India

Table: Columns: Extremes, State, Point. Row 1. Extremes: Northernmost. State: Himachal Pradesh. Point: Indira Col (Ladakh). Row 2. Extremes: Southernmost. State: Tamil Nadu. Point: Kanyakumari/Cape Comorin (Tamil Nadu) Indira Point/Pygmalion Point (A&N islands). Row 3. Mainland, Indira (India in general). Row 4. Extremes: Easternmost. State: Arunachal Pradesh. Point: Kibithu. Row 5. Extremes: Westernmost. State: Gujarat. Point: Guhar Moti/Sir Creek.

Longitudinal and Latitudinal Extent

• It lies completely in the Northern hemisphere and Eastern hemisphere between latitudes 8 degrees 4 minutes North and 37 degrees 6 minutes North and longitudes 68 degrees 7 minutes East and 97 degrees 25 minutes East.

• North-South extent (3214 kilometers) and East-West extent (2933 kilometers).

• Latitudes are equidistant but not longitudes, that's why India's N-S extension is more than E-W Extension.

Image summary: A map of India identifying its extreme geographic boundaries. It marks Indira Col in Ladakh as the northernmost point, Kibithu in Arunachal Pradesh as the easternmost point, Gubah Moti in Gujarat as the westernmost point, and Indira Point in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as the southernmost point, with Kanyakumari noted as the southern tip of the mainland. The map serves to define the territorial limits of India across all four cardinal directions.

}}>Image summary: A 3D map of India showing its geographical boundaries and coordinates, including the Tropic of Cancer and specific latitude and longitude markers. The map highlights the country's land frontier at 15,200 km and its coastline at 7,500 km. The purpose of the image is to depict the geographic scale and territorial extent of India.

Extreme Points of India;

Longitudinal and Latitudinal Extent of India

{Topic of Cancer}

• India is divided by Tropic of Cancer 23 degrees 30 minutes North in almost two equal parts.

• The Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 States out of which Jaipur (Rajasthan), Agartala (Tripura), Aizawl (Mizoram) are only capitals that are above the tropic of Cancer.

Trick to Remember (Gujarati Raja Made Chief Justice Win The Meeting)

Table: Columns: Gujarati, Raja, Made, Chief. Row 1. Gujarati: Gujarat. Raja: Rajasthan. Made: Madhya Pradesh. Chief: Chhattisgarh. Row 2. Gujarati: Justice. Raja: Win. Made: The. Chief: Meeting. Row 3. Gujarati: Jharkhand. Raja: West Bengal. Made: Tripura. Chief: Mizoram. Row 4. Indian Standard Time.

Indian Standard Time

• The difference of time between Gujarat and Arunachal Pradesh is 2 hours; but both their clocks show the same timing. This is because India follows a standard time. Indian Standard Time (I.S.T is 5:30 hours ahead of G.M.T) is along longitude 82.30 degreesE . It passes through the city of Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh.

• The I.S.T passes through 5 States:

Trick to Remember to (mouca)

Table: Columns: M, O, U, C. Row 1. M: Madhya Pradesh. O: Odisha. U: Uttar Pradesh. C: Chhattisgarh. Row 2. A. Row 3. Andhra Pradesh.

• Time Zones: France (13), Russia (11), U.S.A (6) arrow because of many territories).

• Tropic of Cancer meets I.S.T at: Korea district, Chhattisgarh (Baikunthpur).

Image summary: A map of India showing a vertical dashed line representing the 82 degree 30 minute East meridian, passing through Mirzapur and several states including Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh. The figure illustrates the positioning of the meridian used to determine Indian Standard Time.

Land Border of India

India's International Boundary

Countries that share boundary with India:

Table: Row 1: TRICK TO REMEMBER to (Ba CH PaN no MBA). Row 2: B, Ch, Pa. Row 3: Bangladesh (4096.7 kilometers), China (3488 kilometers), Pakistan (3323 kilometers). Row 4: N, M, B. Row 5: Nepal (1751 kilometers), Myanmar (1643 kilometers), Bhutan (699 kilometers). Row 6: A Afghanistan (106 kilometers), Total Land Border Area: 15,106.7 kilometers.

India and Bangladesh Border Shared By

Trick to Remember to (M.A.M Take Water)

M

Meghalaya

Assam

Mizoram

Tripura Water

West Bengal

It is surrounded by Bangladesh on three sides

• The Radcliffe Line is the boundary that separates India and Bangladesh.

India and Nepal Border Shared By

Trick to Remember to (Subbu)

S

U

B

U

Sikkim

Uttar Pradesh

Bihar

West Bengal

Uttarakhand

• Treaty of Sugauli was signed in 1816, that established the boundary line between India and Nepal.

India and Bhutan Border Shared By

B

West Bengal

Assam

Sikkim

Arunachal Pradesh

India and Pakistan Border Shared By

Trick to Remember to (G.R.P J&K Ladakh)

Ladakh

Ladakh

• The Radcliffe Line (Sir Cyril Radcliffe drew the line) is the boundary that separates India and Pakistan.

• The Line of Control (LoC) is a military control line that separates India and Pakistan in the disputed region of J&K.

India and China Border Shared By

J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh.

• Indo-China Border is divided into three sectors:

1. Western sector (Johnson Line defines the boundary between India and China in the Western sector).

2. Middle sector.

3. Eastern sector (McMahon Line defines the boundary

Image summary: A map of the disputed region of Kashmir, highlighting India's claimed territories in yellow, which include Ladakh and Jammu and Kashmir (J&K). The map identifies the Line of Control (LOC), the Line of Actual Control (LAC), and specific locations such as Leh, Siachen, and Daulat Beg Oldi, positioned between India, Pakistan, and China. The map's purpose is to depict the territorial claims and administrative boundaries in this border region.

between India and China in the Eastern sector).

• India has consistently maintained that a region, also known as the Trans-Karakoram Tract, lying north of the Siachen Glacier in Ladakh, historically part of the erstwhile princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, was illegally ceded to China by Pakistan under the 1963 China-Pakistan Boundary Agreement. Which region is being referred to Shaksgam Valley.

• The Galwan River Valley, which is located in north-eastern Ladakh, east of the Aksai Chin plateau, is also illegally occupied by China.

• The Line of Actual Control (L.A.C) is a military control line that separates Indian areas of Ladakh from Aksai Chin.

।Image summary: A map of the India-China border showing the total length of 4057 km divided into three segments: the Western Sector at 2176 km, the Middle Sector at 554 km, and the Eastern Sector at 1327 km. The map identifies neighboring regions including Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and various Indian states. The purpose of the map is to provide a geographic breakdown and the total distance of the boundary between India and China.

LOC and LAC

Indo-China Border

Vibrant Villages Programme

• It is a Centrally sponsored Scheme announced in Union Budget 2022 to 2023 (to 2025 to 2026) for development of villages on India-China border.

India and Myanmar Border Shared By

Trick to Remember to (AruNa MaMi)

Aru Na Ma

Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Manipur

India and Afghanistan

Mi

Mizoram

• India and Afghanistan is separated by Union Territory: Ladakh.

• The border between India and Afghanistan is called the Durand Line.

Image summary: A map of the Indian subcontinent showing four major border demarcations: the Durand Line (1893) between India and Afghanistan, the McMahon Line (1914) between India and Tibet (China), the Radcliffe Line (1947) between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, and the Palk Strait between India and Sri Lanka. The map serves to illustrate the historical and modern boundaries defining the region's territorial edges.

• Gulf: A gulf is a portion of the ocean that penetrates land. They are generally larger and more deeply indented than bays. Gulfs are sometimes connected to the ocean by narrow passages of water called straits.

Largest Gulf in the world: Gulf of Mexico.

• Bay: A bay is a body of water that is partly surrounded by land. Bays empty out into larger bodies of water like oceans and lakes.

Largest Bay in the world: Bay of Bengal.

Image summary: An illustrative diagram of coastal geography showing various landforms and water bodies, including a bay, delta, island, gulf, and peninsula. The image serves to visually define and differentiate these common geographical features along a coastline.

Some Important Facts,

• State sharing boundary with maximum number of states: Uttar Pradesh (with 8 States 1 U.T (Delhi)).

• State sharing border with only one state: Sikkim (with West Bengal) and Meghalaya (with Assam).

• States sharing border with three countries:

1. Sikkim (with Nepal, Bhutan, China).

2. Arunachal Pradesh (with Bhutan, China, Myanmar).

3. West Bengal (with Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh).

• One U.T that shares boundary with three countries: Ladakh (with Pakistan, Afghanistan, and China).

Dividing Lines of India with its Neighbouring Countries

Few Organisations

Organisations under Central Armed Police Force (C.A.P.F)

• Indo-Tibetan Border Police: I.T.B.P (under Ministry of Home Affairs) guards the country's border with China along the Indo-Tibetan region.

• Sashastra Seema Bal: S.S.B (under Ministry of Home Affairs) guards the country's borders with Nepal and Bhutan.

• Border: B.S.F is known as “India's first line of Defence” and was established after Indo-Pak War. It guards country's border with Pakistan and Bangladesh.

• Assam Rifles: It is under Ministry of Home Affairs but the operation control is under Ministry of Defence.

• Central Reserve Police Force (C.R.P.F): It is India's largest paramilitary force and is under Ministry of Home Affairs.

Indian Armed Forces (I.A.F)

• Air Force/Navy/Army: They are under Ministry of Defence. Naxalite affected areas are called as "Red Corridors"

Coastal Boundary of India

• India's total coastal boundary length is approximately 11,098.81 kilometers.

This includes:

• Mainland coastline: 7870.51 kilometers.

• Island territories: 3,228.30 kilometers.

• India's coastline touches the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean, spanning across 9 coastal states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal) and 2 island groups (Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands).

The State-wise/U.T-wise “Length of Coastline of India' are here by mentioned below.

Table: Columns: S.No., State/Union Territory, Coastline length (in Km). Row 1. S.No.: 1.. State/Union Territory: Gujarat. Coastline length (in Km): 2,340.62. Row 2. S.No.: 2. State/Union Territory: Maharashtra. Coastline length (in Km): 877.97. Row 3. S.No.: 3.. State/Union Territory: Goa. Coastline length (in Km): 193.95. Row 4. S.No.: 4.. State/Union Territory: Karnataka. Coastline length (in Km): 343.30. Row 5. S.No.: 5.. State/Union Territory: Kerala. Coastline length (in Km): 600.15. Row 6. S.No.: 6.. State/Union Territory: Tamil Nadu. Coastline length (in Km): 1,068.69. Row 7. S.No.: 7.. State/Union Territory: Andhra Pradesh. Coastline length (in Km): 1,053.07. Row 8. S.No.: 8.. State/Union Territory: Odisha. Coastline length (in Km): 574.71. Row 9. S.No.: 9.. State/Union Territory: West Bengal. Coastline length (in Km): 721.02. Row 10. S.No.: 10.. State/Union Territory: Daman & Din. Coastline length (in Km): 54.38. Row 11. S.No.: 11. State/Union Territory: Pondicherry. Coastline length (in Km): 42.65. Row 12. S.No.: 12.. State/Union Territory: Lakshadweep Islands. Coastline length (in Km): 144.80. Row 13. S.No.: 13.. State/Union Territory: Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Coastline length (in Km): 3,083.50. Row 14. State/Union Territory: Total Length of Coastline of India. Coastline length (in Km): 11,098.81.

Longest coastline of India:

• U.T: Andaman & Nicobar Islands goes to 3,083.50 kilometers

State: Gujarat leads to 2,340.62 kilometers

• Shortest coastline of India: Goa equals 193.95 kilometers

States with longest coastline

1. G: Gujarat

2. T: Tamil Nadu

3. A: Andhra Pradesh

Trick

G.T.A

Largest coastal boundary of the world: Canada

Union Territories of India that share coastal boundaries are:

1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Bay of Bengal) to located on eastern coast of India.

2. Lakshadweep (Arabian Sea).

3. Puducherry (Bay of Bengal).

4. Daman and Diu (Arabian Sea).

Sea Borders of India

• India shares its sea borders with two countries: Sri Lanka and Maldives.

• India and Sri Lanka is separated by Palk Strait (a narrow water body, which connects two large water bodies or separates two landmasses).

• India's sea borders include the Bay of Bengal to the east, the Arabian Sea to the west, and the Indian Ocean to the south.

• Gulf of Mannar is a shallow sea between India and Sri Lanka, located near the southern tip of India.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Unclos)

• It was adopted on 1982 but came into force on 1994.

• It is an international treaty that establishes rules and guidelines for the use and protection of the world's oceans.

• It covers 5 zones: Internal Waters, Territorial Sea, Contiguous Zone, Exclusive Economic Zone (eez) and High Seas.

Territorial Limit of India

• The length of coastline is measured in Nautical Miles (nm). 1 nautical miles 1.852 kilometers.

• India's territorial limit extends up to 12 nm (12 nm = 22 kilometers) from the coast.

• Contiguous Zone: A contiguous zone is a maritime area that lies beyond a country's territorial sea. It extends up to 24 nautical miles.

• Exclusive Economic Zone: It is a maritime area that extends up to 200 millimeters from a coastal nation's territorial sea.

Kanyakumari is a place in India where the Bay of Bengal, the Indian Ocean, and the Arabian Sea meet.

New Pamban Bridge, the first Vertical lift sea Bridge of India which has been inaugurated recently connects Pamban (Rameswaram island) to Mandapam (Mainland India).

Please Note That

• Recently Government of India on 29th April 2025 released that the length of India's coastline has been recalculated and is now 11098.81 kms.

Physiographic Divisions of India

• India is divided into six physiographic divisions based on the varied physical features.

1. Himalayas/Northern Mountains

2. Northern Plains

3. Peninsular Plateau

4. Indian Desert

5. Coastal Plains

6. Islands

Mountains

• Mountains are landforms that are much higher than the surrounding land. They are usually steeper than hills and often have a sharp peak, or summit.

Types of Mountains

1. Fold Mountains: They are formed when tectonic plates collide, causing the Earth's crust to buckle and fold. These mountains are often characterized by parallel ridges and valleys.

{Types}

-1. Young Fold Mountains: Mountains that were formed by tectonic activity a few million years ago.

Eg. Himalayas, Andes (located in South America and is world's longest mountain range), Alps (Europe), Rockies (North America), Atlas (Africa), Caucasus mountains.

-2. Old Fold Mountains: Mountains that were formed by the folding of the Earth's crust in the distant past.

Eg. Aravalli (residual mountains) Ural (separates Asia and Europe) Appalachians (North America).

2. Block Mountains: Block mountains are formed when large areas of the Earth's crust are broken and displaced due to vertical slippage.

Horst to raised block of land bounded by faults, often appearing as a ridge or plateau and Graben (also known as Rift Valley) lowered block of land between two faults, often forming a valley are formed in block mountains.

Eg. Vindhya and Satpura, Vosges Mt. (France), Harz Mt. (Germany), Great African Rift Valley (world's longest Rift Valley).

3. Volcanic Mountains: They are formed when magma from the Earth's mantle rises to the surface and erupts, creating lava flows that build up over time.

Eg. Mount Stromboli (known as “Lighthouse of

Mediterranean", Mount Cotopaxi (Ecuador), Fujiyama (Japan), Barren and Narcondam (Andaman & Nicobar Islands), Ojas del Salado (world's highest active volcano in Chile-Argentina border), Mount Kilimanjaro (Africa).

Himalayas

• The Himalayas are one of the youngest fold mountain ranges in the world of tectonic origin and comprise mainly sedimentary rocks.

Geosyncline: It is an obsolete geological concept that described a long, linear trough in the Earth's crust where vast amounts of sediment accumulate, which was believed to later be deformed into mountain range.

Formation of Himalayas

• They were formed when the Indo-Australian tectonic plate and Eurasian (Asian) tectonic plate collided, this caused the closure of the ancient Tethys Sea, leading to the folding and uplifting of sediments deposited on its seabed. This resulted in creation of multiple massive mountain ranges which are collectively known as the Himalayas.

Four Mountain Ranges in Himalayas

1. {Trans-Himalayas}

• It is located north of the Great Himalayas, this region is characterized by high plateaus and arid landscapes.

• Average elevation: 3000 m.

• Kailash range (China) is also part of Trans Himalaya.

The prominent ranges under Trans Himalayas from North to South order

-1. {Karakoram Range}

• It forms India's boundary with Afghanistan and China.

• Highest peak of this range is K.2, also known as Mount Godwin-Austen (8611 m), which is also world's second highest peak.

• Mount Rakaposhi, Mount Gasherbrum is also a part of Karakoram Range.

2. Ladakh Range

• It has the highest slope.

• Shyok (tributary of Indus) river flows between Karakoram and Ladakh range.

3. Zanskar Range

- Kamet peak is the highest peak of this range.

• Indus river flows between Ladakh and Zanskar range.

Glacier of Karakoram Range

1. Siachen

• 2nd longest non-polar glacier.

2. Baltoro (Gilgit-Baltistan)

3. Hispar

Highest battlefield (5700 m above) 4. Biafo

*Longest non-polar glacier in the world: Fedchenko Glacier in Tajikistan *Longest glacier in the world: The Lambert Glacier in Antarctica

2. {Greater Himalayas}

• They are also known as Himadri/Inner Himalayas.

• They are asymmetrical in nature.

• The core of Greater Himalayas is composed of granitic rock.

• Average height: 6000 m. • Width: 120 to 190 kilometers.

Axial range: 2500 kilometers.

• It's westernmost point is: Nanga Parbat (8126 m)

• It's easternmost point is: Namcha Barwa (shows syntaxial bending).

• Gaurishankar (Peak in Greater Himalayas, Nepal).

• Kedarnath, Badrinath, Bandarpunch, these important peaks located in Uttarakhand, are also part of the Greater Himalayas.

Highest Peaks of Greater Himalayas

1. Mount Everest (Highest mountain in the world with 8848 m height) to Local names: Sagarmatha (in Nepal) and Chomolungma (in Tibet).

2. Mount Kanchenjunga (highest in India (Sikkim) with 8598 m height).

3. Mount Lhotse (in Tibet and Khambu region of Nepal with 8516 m height).

4. Mount Makalu (8485 m).

5. Dhaulagiri (8167 meters) to Also known as White Mountain.

6. Annapurna (8091 m).

Nepal

7. Nanda Devi (highest peak in Uttarakhand with 7816 m height).

8. Mount Kamet (7756 m in Uttarakhand).

—Pamir (Tajikistan) is known as “Roof of the World”

Image summary: A map illustrating the parallel longitudinal ranges of the Himalayas, ordered from north to south as the Trans Himalayas, Great Himalaya, Lesser Himalayas, and Shiwalik. The ranges run along the border of China (Tibet), showing a tiered structure of mountain belts. The figure highlights the geographic zoning of the Himalayan mountain system.

3. Lesser Himalayas

• They are also known as

Middle Himalayas/Himachal.

• Average height: 4000 m.

• Width: 60 to 80 kilometers.

Its Different Names:

J&K: Pir Panjal Range

• Himachal Pradesh: Dhauladhar,

• Uttarakhand: Nagtibba.

Nepal: Mahabharat Range.

Valley

• A valley is a low area of land between hills or mountains, typically with a river or stream flowing through it.

4. Shiwaliks or Outer Himalayas • Kashmir Valley is between Great Himalayas and Lesser Himalayas.

• They are also known as Outer Himalayas.

• Average height: 1000 m.

• Kangra Valley is a type of longitudinal valley that runs parallel to Mountain Trend, where as Kullu Valley is a type of Transverse Valley that cuts across mountain trend.

• Width: 10 to 50 kilometers.

• In the eastern part they disappear and Duars (they are soft unconsolidated deposits that are good for tea cultivation) take its place.

• Longitudinal valleys called Duns are formed between Lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks. Largest Dun in India is Dehradun.

The portion of the Shiwalik lying in the region of Nepal is called the Churia Range.

• Mount Kunlun, known as “the Ancestor of Mountains,” is not part of the Himalayas but formed because of the collision of the Indo-Australian plate and Eurasian plate.

• The Pamir Mountains or Pamir Knot, also known as the “Roof of the World” are formed by the junction of “knot” of the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, and Hindu Kush ranges.

• The Tibetan Plateau is also known as “Roof of the World”.

Regional Division of Himalayas

Punjab Himalayas between Indus and Sutlej river.

• Kumaon Himalayas between Sutlej and Kali river.

Nepal Himalayas between Kali and Teesta river.

Assam Himalayas between Teesta and Dihang river.

Kashmir Valley

• The Kashmir Valley is also known for the Karewa formations (composed of glacial and lacustrine deposits), which are used to grow Zafran, a local variety of saffron.

• Zoji La on the Greater Himalayas, Banihal on the Pir Panjal, Photo La (Ladakh) on the Zanskar, and Khardung La on the Zanskar are some of the region's most important passes.

• This region also has some of the most important freshwater lakes, such as Dal and Wular, as well as saltwater lakes, such as Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri (Locate it on Map).

• The Indus River and its tributaries, such as the Jhelum and Chenab, drain in this region.

Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas

• They are spread across three states: J&K, Himachal

Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.

• It is drained by two of India's largest river systems, the Indus and the Ganga.

• The Bhotia tribe live largely in the valleys of the Greater Himalayan range. These are

Orientation of Himalayas

• In J&K: North-West to South-East.

• Sikkim: East-West.

• Arunachal: South-West

to the North-East.

• Eastern Himalayas: North-South.

nomadic people who travel to the 'Bugyals' (summer grasslands in the mountains) in the summer.

Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas

• It is home to India's highest peak Mount Kanchenjunga.

• The Lepcha/Bhutia tribe live in the higher elevations of this region.

- Duar formation can also be seen here.

Arunachal Himalayas

• The eastern border of Eastern Himalayas is formed by Arunachal Himalayas.

• Important peaks include: Kangtu and Namcha Barwa.

• Important river include: Kameng, Subansiri, Dibang.

• The Monpa, Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi, Nyishi, and Nagas are some of the most well-known hills from west to east.

• Jhumming is practiced by the majority of these groups.

• Mount Kangto is the highest peak of Arunachal Pradesh.

Eastern/Purvanchal Hills

• Eastern Hills/Purvanchal Hills are part of the Himalayan mountain chain, with a basic alignment from north to south.

• They extend from Arunachal Pradesh in the north to Mizoram in the south.

Image summary: A map showing the topography and geography of Northeast India and surrounding regions, including Bhutan, Bangladesh, and China. It highlights various mountain ranges such as the Himalayas, Mishmi Hills, Naga Hills, and Mizo Hills, along with river systems like the Brahmaputra and Padma. The map serves to illustrate the physical geography and regional borders of this mountainous area.

Some Important Hills/Peaks

• Patkai Hills

Naga Hills (highest peak - Saramati peak), Nagaland.

• Manipur Hills (highest peak - Mount Iso or Esii or Tempo), Manipur.

• Mizo/Lushai Hills (highest peak - Mount Phawngpui - also known as Blue mountain), Mizoram.

Mount Jhopuno: Sikkim.

• Gorichen Peak: Arunachal Pradesh.

Thaidawr Tlang: Tripura.

• In Manipur and Mizoram (also known as Molasses Basin), the Barak is a significant river.

• The state of Manipur is known for world's only floating lake Loktak Lake. Keibul Lamjao National Park is located here (only floating National Park in the world).

Eastern/Purvanchal Hills

Note

• The Barail range, located in the North-east, stretching from Nagaland & Manipur to the east and Assam & Meghalaya to the west, acts as a watershed between the Brahmaputra and Barak rivers.

• Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, North chachar hills are not part of Himalayas but are part of Peninsular Plateau.

Mountain Passes

• A mountain pass is a route that runs through or over a mountain range.

• Mountain passes between mountain peaks may form during the formation of the mountain range, or they may form as a result of the action of glaciers, running water, or precipitation in the form of rain or snow.

J&K and Leh-Ladakh

• Karakoram Pass: It is the highest pass that connects India and China.

• Pir Panjal Pass and Banihal Pass: They connect Jammu to Srinagar.

• Burzil Pass: It is between Srinagar and Gilgit.

• Zoji La: It connects Srinagar in Kashmir to Leh-Ladakh.

• Mig La Pass: World's highest motorable road (constructed through Project Himank) in Ladakh.

• Khardung La - connects Leh to Nubra valley.

Pensi La - connects Leh back to Kashmir.

• Some other important passes are: Mintaka, Aghil,

Khunjerab, Lanak, Chang La, Imis La - these are located at the border.

Image summary: A geographic map of the Kashmir region pinpointing various mountain passes and La, including the Khunjerab, Zojil, and Banihal passes. The map serves to identify the specific locations of these key transit points across the mountainous terrain.

Major Passes in J&K and Leh-Ladakh

Himachal Pradesh

• Shipki La Pass: It connects Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh to Tibet, China. Sutlej enters in India through this pass.

• Rohtang Pass: It connects the Kullu Valley to the Lahaul and Spiti valleys in Himachal Pradesh (Atal Tunnel, the longest highway tunnel (9.02 kilometers) is built under the Rohtang Pass).

• Bara-Lacha La Pass: It connects Lahaul and Leh by crossing the Zanskar range.

Image summary: A map showing the locations of four mountain passes along the border between an interior region and Tibet: Rohtang Pass, Bara Lacha la, Sipki La, and Debsa Pass. The map serves to identify the geographical positions of these specific transit points in the border region.

Uttarakhand

• Mana Pass: It connects the Mana with Tibet.

Niti Pass: It connects Uttarakhand and Tibet.

• Lipu Lekh Pass: It is between Uttarakhand, Tibet and Nepal, it acts as a tri-junction.

• Mauling La Pass: During the winter, this seasonal pass connecting Uttarakhand and Tibet.

Image summary: A map showing several mountain passes along the border of Tibet, including Mangsha Dhura, Muling La, Traill's Pass, Mana Pass, Niti Pass, and Lipu Lekh. The map identifies the locations of these geographical gateways between the territories, highlighting the primary transit routes in the region.

Major Passes in Himachal Pradesh

Sikkim

• Nathu La Pass: It links Sikkim and Tibet.

• Jelep La Pass: It is located on the border of Sikkim and Tibet.

।Image summary: A map of Sikkim and surrounding regions showing the locations of Nathu La and Jelep La. The passes are marked as transition points between the blue area representing Sikkim and the yellow area representing Tibet. The figure serves to identify the geographical locations of these major mountain passes.

Major Passes in Uttarakhand

Arunachal Pradesh

• Bom Di La Pass: It connects Arunachal Pradesh with Lhase (Tibet).

• Dihang La Pass: This pass connects the states of Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar.

• Pangsau Pass: It connects Arunachal and Myanmar.

• Bum La Pass: It is a border pass between China and Tawang district of Arunachal Pradesh.

• Diphu Pass: It is in Arunachal Pradesh that borders Myanmar and is close to the trijunction of India, Myanmar, and China.

• Yangyap Pass: It is a pass from where Brahmaputra river enters India.

• Sela pass: Another important pass which connects Tawang & West Kameng, two districts of Arunachal Pradesh (sacred site in Tibetan Buddhism).

: Image summary: A map of Arunachal Pradesh showing various mountain passes along its borders. Key passes are labeled, including Yonggyap Pass and Bom di La to the north and west, and Dihang, Dipher, Kumjawng, Chankan, Lekhapani, and Hpungan passes along the eastern border with Myanmar. The map serves to identify the strategic geographic entry and exit points of the region.

Peninsula

Peninsular Plateau

• A peninsula is a landform that is surrounded by water on three sides, but connected to a large landmass on one side.

Plateau

• A plateau is a flat or gently sloping elevated landform that rises above the surrounding area. It is often referred to as tableland due to its flat top. Plateaus can be formed due to volcanic activity, tectonic, movements, or erosion.

• General elevation: West to East.

Highest plateau in the world: Tibetan Plateau (4500 m) also known as "Roof of the World".

largest physiographic division of India, covering a vast area in the southern part of the country.

• The Peninsular Plateau is one of the world's oldest landforms.

• General elevation of Peninsular Plateau: 600 to 900 m above sea level.

• The Peninsular plateau is a tableland made up of old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks.

• It was developed as a result of the breakup and drifting of the Gondwana Land (it was earlier a part of African continent).

• The plateau has large and shallow valleys as well as rounded hills.

• This plateau is divided into two sections: the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau.

Central Highlands

• The Central Highlands are located to the north of the Narmada, covering major area of Malwa Plateau.

• It is bordered by Aravalli Range in the northwest and the Vindhya Range in the south.

• General elevation: 700 to 1000 m.

• Central Highlands are wider in west but narrower in the east.

• The Chotanagpur plateau marks the further eastward extension, drained by the Damodar river.

Marwar/Mewar Plateau

• It is located in eastern Rajasthan.

Malwa Plateau

• The plateau is an extension of the Deccan Traps and is spread across Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.

• It is composed of extensive lava flow and is covered with black soil.

• Rivers like Mahi, Chambal, Betwa, Sindh, Ken flow southwest to northeast of this region.

Bundelkhand

• It is spread across the states of Uttar Pradesh

(Districts: Chitrakoot, Jhansi, Jalaun, Hamirpur) and Madhya Pradesh.

• General elevation: 300 to 600 m.

Baghelkhand

• It is spread across the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh (Districts: Rewa, Satna, Shahdol, and Sidhi).

Chotanagpur Plateau

• It is spread across Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, West Bengal.

• It is often referred to as

Image summary: A map of India showing the locations and distributions of various plateaus, including the Marwar, Malwa, Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand, Chhotanagpur, Dandakaranya, Telangana, Karnataka, and Deccan plateaus. The map serves to illustrate the geographical layout of these highland regions across the Indian subcontinent.

• Rashtrapati Bhavan is located on Raisina Hill (400 to 600 m) in New Delhi, India.

• Dilwara Jain Temple is located on Mount Abu Hills in Rajasthan.

the “Ruhr of India” due to its rich mineral deposits, similar to Ruhr region in Germany.

• Netarhat in Jharkhand is known as “Queen of Chotanagpur” because of its scenic beauty, pleasant climate, and dense forests.

• It comprises of three major plateaus: Ranchi Plateau, Hazaribagh Plateau, and Koderma Plateau

• The highest peak of the Chotanagpur Plateau is Parasnath Hill, located in Jharkhand (on the name of 23rd Tirthankar), which rises to an elevation of 1,365 m.

• The Damodar River flows through the center of the plateau, creating a rift valley that runs from west to east.

Peninsular Plateaus

Aravallis

• The Aravallis Range is a group of old fold mountains that run from southwest to northeast.

• General elevation: 800 m.

Jadugoda mines of Jharkhand is famous for Uranium mines

• The Aravalli Range stretches from Delhi to Gujarat, passing through Haryana and Rajasthan.

• Guru Shikhar (1722 m) situated in Mount Abu Hills is the highest peak of Aravalli.

Satpura and Vindhya Range

Satpura Range

• It lies north of Deccan Plateau and runs parallel to Vindhya Range.

• It is a block mountain that extends through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, and Gujarat.

• It comprises of three hills

1. Mahadeo Hills to the north to highest point of Satpura range "Dhupgarh" (1350 m) in Madhya Pradesh is located here.

2. Maikal Range to the east to highest peak of Maikal range is Amarkantak Plateau (in Madhya Pradesh) from where river Narmada and Son originates.

Amankantak (has abundant deposits of Bauxite) is the meeting point of Satpura and Vindhya range.

3. Asirgarh Hills

- Located to the west/southwest of the Maikal hills & east of Rajpipla hills (The Asirgarh fort, also known as the "Key of Deccan" is located here).

4. Rajpipla Hills to the west.

- Hill station: Pachmarhi (also known as "Queen of Satpura").

Vindhya Range

• The Vindhya range (also a block mountain) mostly extends through the Indian states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.

• The highest point of the Vindhya Range is known as Sadbhawna Shikhar/Kalumar Peak/Goodwill Peak is 752 metres (2467 feet).

Panna in Madhya Pradesh is located in Vindhya Range and is famous for its diamond mines.

• The Kalinjar Fort (declared as National Geo-Heritage Site by G.S.I), is located in the Banda district, Uttar Pradesh, in the Bundelkhand region, on an isolated hill within the Vindhya Range.

Deccan Plateau

• The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass to the south of the Narmada river and covers the southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and Maharashtra. The Deccan Plateau is bordered by the Western Ghats to the west and the Eastern Ghats to the east. The Satpura Range forms its northern boundary.

Formation of Deccan plateau:

India was once part of the Gondwana land. After the separation from Gondwana, the Indian Plate started moving northwards toward the Eurasian Plate. While passing over the Hotspot volcanic region near Reunion Islands (close to Mauritius), massive volcanic eruptions occurred. These eruptions released huge amounts of basaltic lava, which spread over western India for ages and formed the Deccan Traps, that's why black soil is found there.

• The Mahadev, Kaimur, and Maikal ranges form its eastern extensions.

>'Image summary: A map of the Indian Ocean region showing the path of the Indian plate's northward movement from Reunion toward India. A red line tracks this trajectory, passing through the Mascarene Plateau, the Chagos area, and the Lacquoise Ridge, ending at the Deccan Traps in India. The map illustrates the geological trail of the Reunion hotspot as India drifted north over millions of years.'

Image summary: A map of Northeast India showing the regional geography, including prominent mountain ranges such as the Mishmi, Dafla, Patkai Bum, Naga, Mizo, and Barail hills, as well as the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills. It depicts the region's position relative to Bhutan, Bangladesh, and China, with the Brahmaputra river flowing through the valley. The map serves to illustrate the topographic features and political boundaries of the area.

• It is higher in the west and slopes gently eastward (the rivers in this region flow towards east).

• An extension of the Plateau is also visible in the northeast, locally known as the Meghalaya Plateau, Karbi-Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills.

Image summary: A map of India showing the distribution of various hill ranges and mountains. The labels identify various ranges including the Aravalli, Vindhya, Satpura, and various hill systems across the Deccan Plateau and southern peninsula, with the Rajmahal Hills specifically circled. The map's purpose is to illustrate the geographical locations of major highland regions across the Indian subcontinent.

Malda fault/gap

• The Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills of the Meghalaya Plateau and the Mikir Hills & North Cachar Hills of the Karbi Anglong Plateau are considered an eastward extension of the Rajmahal Hills/Chotanagpur Plateau.

• The Malda fault or Malda gap separates the Chotanagpur plateau from Meghalaya Plateau, Karbi Anglong Plateau (North Cachar Plateau).

Western and Eastern Ghats

• The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats mark the western and the eastern edges of the Deccan Plateau respectively.

Western Ghats are block mountains.

• The Western and Eastern Ghats meet at Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu.

Table: Columns: Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats. Row 1. Western Ghats: They are continuous and can be crossed through passes only. Eastern Ghats: They are discontinuous, irregular and dissected by rivers. Row 2. Western Ghats: Average height: 1200 m (higher than Eastern Ghats). Eastern Ghats: Average height: 600 m (lower and narrower than Western Ghats). Row 3. Western Ghats: They stretch from Tapi to south of Nilgiri Hills. Eastern Ghats: They stretch from Mahanadi Valley to the Nilgiri Hills in the south. Row 4. Western Ghats: They spread across Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Goa. Eastern Ghats: They spread across Odisha, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu. Row 5. Western Ghats: Highest peaks: Anamudi (2695 m on Annamalai Hills) in Kerala. Eastern Ghats: Highest peak: Jindhagada (1690 m) and Mahendragiri (1501 m to in Odisha).

• In Maharashtra, western ghats are known as Sahyadri Hills and their height increases from North to South.

Passes in Western Ghats

• Thal Ghat: It connects Mumbai to Nasik.

- Bhor Ghat: It connects Mumbai to Pune.

• Pal Ghat (Palakkad Gap): It connects (Nilgiri to Annamalai) and Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) to Palakkad (Kerala).

Some important hills & ranges of Western Ghats in different states:

• Gujarat: Barda hills, Girnar hills, Mandav hills, Garda hills etcetera

• Maharashtra: Ajanta, Satmala, Balaghat, Harish Chandra, Gavilgarh range, Mahabaleshwar, Kalsubai peak etcetera

• Karnataka: Badami hills, Bagalkot hills, Chitradurga hills, Shimoga hills, Baba Budan hills.

• Tamilnadu: Nilgiri hills, Palani hills, Varusanadu hills.

- Kerala: Nilgiri hills, Annamalai hills (Anamudi peak - highest peak of Western Ghats), Cardamom hills, Palakkad hills (also known as Palakkad gap).

Importance of Nilgiri Hills :

• Nilgiri is located at the tri-junction of three states: Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

• Highest peak of Nilgiri - Dodabetta (2637 m) - second highest peak of South India & Western Ghats.

Ooti, a famous hill station of Tamilnadu located here.

• Nilgiri is the meeting point of the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats.

Some important hills & ranges of Eastern Ghats in different states:

• Tamilnadu: Pachaimalai hills, Javadi hills.

• Andhra Pradesh: Nallamala hills, Velikonda range, Palkonda range, Seshachalam hills (The Tirupati temple located here).

• Odisha: Bamra hills, Kanaka hills, Khondamal hills. (Garhjat hills in Odisha are part of central highlands, also located at the starting point of the Eastern Ghats).

• Bhima Fault, located in peninsular plateau (mainly in Karnataka and Maharashtra) - is known for recurrent seismic activity.

Some Famous Hills

• Dhinodhar Hills: Gujarat.

Kalsubai Peak: Maharashtra.

Mount Saramati: Nagaland.

• Shatrunjaya Hills: Gujarat.

• Anantagiri Hills: Andhra Pradesh (Borra Caves are situated in these hills).

Northern Plains

Formation of Northern Plains

• The Northern Plains are flat, fertile lands formed by the deposition of alluvial soil from the Himalayan River system namely Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra.

• The deposited material forms a vast and fertile stretch of land, ideal for farming.

• Length: 3200 (2400 Km in India).

• Average Width: 150 to 300 Km.

• Depth of Alluvial Deposits: 1000 to 2000 m.

।Image summary: A diagram showing the geological progression of the Northern Plains of India from the Himalaya mountains toward the south. It depicts a sequence of terrain types starting with the Bhabar region of pebbles, followed by the marshy Terai region, and then the higher Bhangar plains surrounding the lower Khandar depressions. The diagram illustrates the varying soil compositions and elevations that characterize the transition from the mountains to the plains.

Physiographic Divisions of Northern Plains

Classification of Northern Plains

1. {Bhabar}

• It is a narrow belt (8 to 16 kilometers wide) lying south of the Shiwaliks.

• River coming down from the mountains deposit stones and pebbles, due to which it disappears.

• This region is not suitable for agriculture due to excessive porosity.

2. {Terai}

• It lies south of the Bhabar region (width: 10 to 20 kilometers).

• Streams reappear as they seep through the Bhabar layer, forming a marshy area.

- Terai region is rich in lush green vegetation and fertile soil, making it suitable for agriculture.

• Important National Parks in the Terai Region: Jim Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand), Dudhwa National Park (Uttar Pradesh), Valmiki National Park (Bihar), Rajaji National Park (Uttarakhand), Chitwan National Park (Nepal).

3. {Alluvial Flood Plains}

The fertile lands formed by the deposition of river sediments. They are divided into:

{Khadar} (New Alluvial Soil)

• It is newly deposited floodplain, renewed annually by river floods.

• Khadar is more fertile than Bhangar, suitable for intensive farming.

Bhangar (Old Alluvial Soil)

• It is older, elevated floodplain with deposits over thousands of years.

• The region has more calcareous (kankar-rich) deposits, making it less fertile.

Coastal Plains of India

• India has two major coastal plains along the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The coastal regions play a key role in trade, tourism, and port development.

Western Coastal Plains

• They are narrow in the middle, wider at the ends (Dumbbell-like shape).

- The Western Coastal Plains of India are called submerged coastal plains because a part of the land near the coast has sunk below sea level over time.

• Rivers do not form deltas because they flow quickly into the sea.

• They are famous for formation of backwaters (Kayals).

Eg. Punnamada Kayal in Kerala (famous for the Nehru Trophy Boat Race).

Eastern Coastal Plains

• The Eastern Coastal Plains lie along the Bay of Bengal and stretch from West Bengal to Tamil Nadu.

• They are wider than the Western Coastal Plains and have emerging coastline with large river deltas.

• They are formed by rivers like Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri that bring soil and deposit it along the sediments.

• It is not much suitable for port development.

: Image summary: A map of India highlighting the Western and Eastern Coastal Plains in yellow. The Western Coastal Plain includes the Rann of Kutch, Kathiawar Coast, Konkan Coast, and Malabar Coast from Gujarat to Kerala, while the Eastern Coastal Plain consists of the Utkal Coast, Northern Circar, and Coromandel Coast from Odisha to Tamil Nadu. The map serves to identify the geographical distribution and regional naming of India's two primary coastal regions.

Western and Eastern Coastal Plains

Ports

Classification of Indian Ports

Major Ports

• Total major ports: 13

• Public Ports: 12 (ownership and management by Central Government)

• Privately managed port: 1 arrow Kamarajar port (located in Ennore in Tamil Nadu) is the only corporate-owned port by G.O.I.

"Vizhinjam International Seaport (in Kerala) is the first transhipment port in India."

13 Major Ports of India

Table: Columns: Port Name, Location, Special Features. Row 1. Port Name: Kandla Port (Deendayal Port). Location: Gujarat. Special Features: Tidal port. Row 2. Port Name: Mumbai Port. Location: Maharashtra. Special Features: Largest natural harbour. Row 3. Port Name: Jawaharlal Nehru Port (Nhava Sheva Port). Location: Maharashtra. Special Features: Largest container port in India/ Satellite port. Row 4. Port Name: Mormugao Port. Location: Goa. Special Features: On the estuary of Zuari river. Row 5. Port Name: Mangalore (New Mangalore port). Location: Karnataka. Row 6. Port Name: Cochin Port. Location: Kerala. Special Features: It is also known as "Queen of Arabian Sea". Row 7. Port Name: Ennore Port (Kamarajar Port). Location: Tamil Nadu. Special Features: India's first corporate port. Row 8. Port Name: Chennai. Location: Tamil Nadu. Row 9. Port Name: Tuticorin Port (V.O. Chidambaranar Port). Location: Tamil Nadu. Special Features: India's southernmost port. Row 10. Port Name: Vishakhapatnam Port. Location: Andhra Pradesh. Special Features: Deepest landlocked port in India. Row 11. Port Name: Paradip Port. Location: Odisha. Row 12. Port Name: Kolkata Port (Shyama Prasad Mukherjee Port). Location: West Bengal. Special Features: India's only riverine port (also the oldest port developed by British). Row 13. Port Name: Haldia Port. Location: West Bengal. Special Features: It is also known as "Diamond Harbour".

Image summary: An outline map of India identifying the locations of several major ports along its coastline. The map labels ports on the west coast, including Kandla, Mumbai, Jawaharlal Nehru, Mormugao, New Mangalore, and Kochi, and ports on the east coast, including Kolkata & Haldia, Paradip, Visakhapatnam, Ennore, Chennai, and Tuticorin. The purpose of the map is to show the geographic distribution of key maritime ports across India's coastal regions.

Major ports in India

Great Indian Desert (Thar Desert)

• The Thar Desert lies to the northwest of the Aravalli Range.

• It experiences low rainfall (about 150 millimeters per year).

• Summers are extremely hot, while winters are cold and dry.

• It is also known as “Marusthali” meaning “Land of Dead”.

• Most rivers here are ephemeral, meaning they only flow during the rainy season.

• It is believed that during the Mesozoic era the area was submerged under the water.

Islands

• An island is a piece of land that is completely surrounded by water and is smaller than a continent.

Islands of India

• India has two major island groups: Lakshadweep Islands (in the Arabian Sea) and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (in the Bay of Bengal).

1. Lakshadweep Islands: It was formed from coral deposits, making them classified as "coral islands".

• Andaman & Nicobar Islands have more coral deposits

than Lakshadweep.

• Total islands: 36.

• Largest island: Andrott Island.

• 2nd largest island: Minicoy.

• Smallest island: Bitra

Latitudinal Extent: 8 degrees North to 12 degrees North

• Longitudinal Extent: 71 degrees East to 74 degrees East

Image summary: A map showing the Arabian Sea and the coast of India, featuring the islands of Lakshadweep, Minicoy, and the Maldives. Two geographic boundaries, labeled as the 9 Degree Channel and the 8 Degree Channel, are marked by dashed lines between the islands. The map illustrates the spatial relationship and positioning of these islands and channels in the region.

• Area of Lakshadweep: 30 to 32 square kilometers.

• The group of Islands of Lakshadweep, which are located above the 11 degrees channel is known as Aminidivi. (Including Bitra, Andrott, Amini, Kadmat etcetera).

• The group of islands located below the 11 degrees channel, is called Cannanore. (Including Kavaratti, Suheli, Agatti, Kalpeni etcetera).

2. Andaman and Nicobar Islands: They are considered as a submerged extension of the Arakan Yoma mountain range (Myanmar).

• Total Islands: 572.

• Largest Island: Middle Andaman.

Latitudinal Extent: 6 degrees North to 14 degrees North

• Longitudinal Extent: 92 degrees East to 94 degrees East.

A Group of

Islands is called

Archipelago

• Area of Andaman & Nicobar: 8,249 square kilometers.

- Barren Island is India's only active volcano located northeast of South Andaman, while Narcondam is a dormant volcanic island located further north.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Highest Peaks in Andaman and Nicobar Islands

: Image summary: A map of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, showing major islands, towns, and landmarks. It identifies Saddle Peak as the highest peak in the north and Mount Thullier as the second highest peak in the south, while marking Port Blair as the capital. The map serves to illustrate the geographical layout and key topographic features of the archipelago.

Important Passages and Channels

Table: Columns: Channel/Passage, Separates. Row 1. Channel/Passage: 10 degrees Channel. Separates: Andaman and Nicobar group of islands OR Little Andaman and Car Nicobar. Row 2. Channel/Passage: Duncan Passage. Separates: South Andaman and Little Andaman. Row 3. Channel/Passage: Coco Channel. Separates: A&N Islands and Myanmar.

Indigenous Tribes

• Andaman: North Andamanese, Jarawa, Onge, Sentinelese.

• Nicobar: Shompen, Nicobarese.

Renamed Islands in Andaman & Nicobar

• Ross Island  Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Island.

• Neil Island to Shaheed Dweep.

• Havelock Island to Swaraj Dweep.

Table: Columns: National Park, Location. Row 1. National Park: Saddle Peak NP. Location: North Andaman. Row 2. National Park: Mount Harriet NP. Location: South Andaman. Row 3. National Park: Mahatma Gandhi NP. Location: South Andaman. Row 4. National Park: Rani Jhansi Marine NP. Location: Ritchie's Archipelago. Row 5. National Park: North Button Island NP. Location: North Andaman. Row 6. National Park: Middle Button Island NP. Location: Middle Andaman. Row 7. National Park: South Button Island NP. Location: South Andaman. Row 8. National Park: Campbell Bay NP. Location: Great Nicobar. Row 9. National Park: Galathea Bay NP. Location: Great Nicobar.

Lakshadweep

Important Channels of Lakshadweep

Table: Columns: Channel/Passage, Separates. Row 1. Channel/Passage: 8 degrees Channel. Separates: Lakshadweep and Maldives OR Minicoy and Maldives. Row 2. Channel/Passage: 9 degrees Channel. Separates: Lakshadweep and Minicoy. Row 3. Channel/Passage: 11 degrees Channel. Separates: Aminidivi and Cannanore.

Islands along the West Coast: (Arabian Sea)

1. Diu Island: It was a Portuguese colony, now part of the Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.

2. Piram Bet Island: An island in the Gulf of Cambay (Khambhat), Gujarat.

3. Bet Dwarka (Beyt Dwarka): An island near Dwarka, Gujarat, with strong mythological significance in Hinduism.

5. Alia Bet Island: Gujarat to River island in the delta of Narmada river (situated near Gulf of Khambhat).

6. Elephanta Island: Famous for the Elephanta Caves (Shavite, also a unesco World Heritage Site), located in Mumbai Harbour, Maharashtra.

7. Salsette Island: Cities of Mumbai and Thane are located on it, making it one of the most populous islands in the world.

8. Vengurla Rocks (Burnt Islands): A small group of rocky islands off the coast of Maharashtra.

9. St. Mary's Islands: A group of four small islands off the coast of Malpe, Karnataka, famous for their unique columnar basaltic rock formations.

Island Along the East Coast: (Bay of Bengal)

1. Sagar Island (Gangasagar): A large island in the Ganges Delta, West Bengal, a significant Hindu pilgrimage site.

2. New Moore Island (Purbasha Island): A small, uninhabited sandbar island in the Bay of Bengal, which was disputed between India and Bangladesh. It has now largely disappeared due to rising sea levels.

3. Abdul Kalam Island (Wheeler Island): An island off the coast of Odisha, primarily used as a missile testing facility by India.

4. Sriharikota: A barrier island off the coast of Andhra Pradesh, home to the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (S.D.S.C), India's primary orbital launch site.

5. Parikund Island: Odisha.

Riverine Islands:

1. Majuli Island: Located in the Brahmaputra River in Assam, it was once one of the largest riverine islands in the world.

2. Srirangam Island: Located in the Kaveri River in Tamil Nadu, famous for the Ranganatha Swamy Temple.

Other Notable Islands/Island Groups:

• Pamban Island (Rameswaram Island): Located between mainland India and Sri Lanka, it's famous for the town of Rameswaram and the Ramanatha Swamy Temple, as well as the historic Pamban Bridge.

• Gulf of Mannar: It is between south-eastern tip of India and West coast of Sri Lanka in Coromandel coast region.

• Chorao Island: A beautiful island in Goa, known for its Dr Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary.

• Divar Island: Another picturesque island in Goa.

• Katchatheevu Island (small uninhabited island in Palk Strait): Between India and Sri Lanka (Disputed).

• Sir Creek Line: Between India and Pakistan (Disputed). Some Facts

• The southwestern portion of Palk Strait is Palk Bay.

• Satish Dhawan Space Centre (S.D.S.C) to in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, is the primary launch site of the Indian Space Research Organisation (isro).

• On January 23, 2023, P.M Narendra Modi renamed 21 unnamed islands of Andaman and Nicobar in honor of Param Vir Chakra (P.V.C) awardees.

• Pygmalion Point, now known as Indira Point, is the southernmost point of Indian territory that is located in the Great Nicobar Island of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The Great Channel (or Six Degree Channel) separates India's Nicobar Islands (specifically Great Nicobar Island) from Indonesia's Sumatra Island.

Drainagepattern

• Drainage pattern refers to the system of flow of surface water mainly through the forms of rivers and basins.

• The drainage system depends upon factors such as slope of land, geological structure, amount of volume of water and source of water.

• Drainage Basin: It is the entire area drained by that river as well as its tributaries and distributaries.

• Watershed: A watershed is a land area that channels rainfall and snowmelt to creeks, streams, and rivers, ultimately draining into larger bodies of water like reservoirs, bays, or oceans.

• Haryana & Delhi lie in the watershed region between Sutlej & Ganga river basin.

• Catchment Area: A land area where all the water from precipitation, such as rain and snowmelt, drains into a common outlet like a river, lake, or ocean.

Different Drainage Pattern

There are four types of drainage patterns formed by a river: Dendritic, Trellis, Radial, and Centripetal pattern.

{Dendritic}

• The most common drainage pattern that resembles a tree's branching roots.

Image summary: A sketch of a branching structure resembling a tree or a neuron's dendritic arbor, with a thick main stem that divides into progressively thinner branches. The point is to illustrate a hierarchical branching pattern.

• It occurs when a stream receives water from tributaries, which are fed by smaller tributaries.

Tributaries join larger streams at acute angles (less than 90 degrees).

Eg. The rivers of the Northern Plains: Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.

Trellis

• This type of drainage pattern is formed

Image summary: A simple hand-drawn diagram of a central vertical line intersected by four horizontal, branched lines, with a small arrow labeled "this direction" pointing upward. The drawing illustrates a basic structural orientation or a directional flow along a central axis.

when primary tributaries of the main river flow parallel to each other and secondary tributaries join them at right angles.

Eg. Rivers of originating at Chota Nagpur and rivers in the upper Himalayan region: Damodar river, Indus river, etcetera

Radial

This type of drainage pattern is a pattern of steams and rivers that radiate outward from a central high point. It's common around volcanoes and other conically shaped features. Eg. The rivers like Narmada, Son and Mahanandi originating from Amarkantak Hills are examples of drainage pattern.

Centripetal

• It is the opposite of the radial pattern.

The steams flow toward a central depression/basin. Eg. Loktak Lake (Manipur).

Image summary: A simple sketch of a starburst or radial pattern, consisting of several dark, branching lines extending outward from a central open space. It is a basic drawing with no data or analytical results to report.

Types of Rivers Based on Relation to Land Slope and Structure

• Consequent River: A river that flows along the general direction of the land's slope.

• Subsequent River: A tributary stream that forms after the main drainage pattern, eroding along a belt of weaker rock.

• Obsequent River: A tributary that flows in the opposite direction to the main, or consequent river.

• Resequent River: A stream that flows in the same direction as the original consequent river but originates at a much later stage.

Indian Drainage System

The Indian river system can be broadly classified as:

1. Himalayan River System

2. Peninsular River System

• They are perennial rivers (flow throughout the year) and do not depend on monsoon for their water flow.

• They originate from glaciers in the Himalayas.

• They have long courses from source to the sea.

• Three major Himalayan Rivers are: Indus, Ganga,

Brahmaputra (originating from northern mountain ranges).

• Some Himalayan rivers are antecedent (they follow their original course despite geological changes). Eg. Sutlej, Kosi, Indus, Brahmaputra.

Peninsular River System

• They are ephemeral (they are seasonal rivers).

• They have shorter and shallower course.

• Some major Peninsular Rivers are: Narmada, Tapi, Godavari, Krishna, etcetera

Now, Let us Learn about Himalayan Rivers!

Indus River System

• Length: 2,880 kilometers (1,114 kilometers in India).

• Origin: Bokhar Chu Glacier (Tibet) in the Kailash mountain range near Lake Mansarovar and it enters India at Demchok (Ladakh).

• Flows through:

China leads to India leads to Pakistan.

Drains into: Arabian Sea.

• In Tibet, it is known as 'Singi Khamban' (meaning: Lion's mouth).

Tributaries:

Image summary: A map of the Indus River Basin and its tributaries across Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, China, and Nepal. The Indus River flows from the east through the north and down through Pakistan, joined by five major tributaries flowing from the east: the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. The map depicts the geographical drainage system of the region's primary river network.

• Left Bank: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej.

• Right Bank: Shyok, Gilgit, Hunza.

Leh is located on the banks of Indus river.

Indus Water Treaty (1960)

This treaty was signed between India (Jawaharlal Nehru) and Pakistan (Mohammad Ayub Khan) in Karachi (mediated by the World Bank) in 1960.

It has been suspended by India in 2025 after Pahalgam attack.

The Treaty Allocates the Rivers to the Countries:

• Western Rivers: Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab to Pakistan (80% water used by Pakistan and used by India).

• Eastern Rivers: Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej to India (80% water used by India and 20% used by Pakistan)

• Doab: It refers to the area of land situated between two rivers.

Doabs Formed

• Indus + Jhelum: Sindh Sagar Doab.

Jhelum + Chenab: Jech Doab.

Chenab + Ravi: Rechna Doab.

Ravi + Beas: Bari Doab.

Beas + Sutlej: Bist Doab.

Tributaries of Indus River

Jhelum

Jhelum river meanders in its youthful stage.

Ancient Name: Vitasta.

• Origin: Verinag (Jammu & Kashmir)

• Panchnad: It refers to the

confluence of five rivers in

Punjab implies Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej

• These five rivers meet with the Indus in Mithankot, Pakistan.

Jhelum is also known as

"Vyath" in Kashmir.

- Jhelum is also known as

"Hydaspes" in Greek.

• Battle of Hydaspes: Between

Alexander & Porus in 326 B.C.

• Srinagar is located on the bank of Jhelum river.

• Wular lake (largest freshwater lake in India) is fed by Jhelum river.

{Chenab}

Image summary: A photograph of a large arch bridge spanning a deep, rocky valley with a river flowing below. It is a documentary image showing the bridge's scale and integration into the mountainous terrain.

• Chenab river is formed by the confluence of two rivers to Chandra and Bhaga at Tandi (H.P) in Lahaul Valley.

Ancient Name: Askini.

Origin: Baralacha La Pass

• It is the largest tributary of Indus.

Ravi

- Ancient Name: Purushni.

- Origin: Rohtang Pass.

- Chenab River Bridge in Reasi

district of J&K is part of

Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla

Rail link Project.

Height: 359 m

• Length: 1315 m

• It is a transboundary river, meaning it flows through both India and Pakistan.

Beas

Ancient Name: Bipasha.

Origin: Rohtang Pass.

• It is the only tributary of Indus that does not enter Pakistan. It joins sutlei near Harike (Punjab).

{Sutlej}

Ancient Name: Shutudri.

Origin: Rakshastal Lake (Mansarovar Lake, Tibet).

• It enters India through Shipki La Pass.

• It is the longest tributary of Indus river.

• In Tibet it is known as Langqien Zangbo.

Ganga River System

Image summary: A map of the Ganga River System showing the flow of the main Ganga river and its numerous tributaries. The system originates from the Yamnotri and Gangotri Glaciers and flows southeast, collecting water from northern tributaries like the Ramganga, Gomati, Gandak, and Kosi, and southern tributaries including the Yamuna, Sindh, Betwa, Son, and Damodar. Key cities along the river path include Kannauj, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, and Bhagalpur, eventually flowing into the Padma. The map illustrates the vast drainage network that feeds into the main Ganga channel.

• Length: 2,525 kilometers (longest river and has the largest river basin in India).

Origin: Gangotri Glacier (Gaumukh, Uttarakhand).

Drains into: Bay of Bengal.

Ganga was declared as National river of India in 2008.

• The water from Ganga stored in bottle remains fresh due to the presence of Bacteriophage viruses.

• Endangered species found in Ganga: Susu Dolphins.

• It passes through: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh (longest), Bihar, Jharkhand (shortest), and West Bengal.

• Major cities on the banks of Ganga: Kanpur to Prayagra

greater than → less than / Varanasi to Patna (in west to east order).

Famous Confluences (Prayags) Formed:

• Devprayag: Alaknanda + Bhagirathi (meets to form Ganga).

• Rudraprayag: Alaknanda + Mandakini.

Karnaprayag: Alaknanda + Pindar.

• Nandaprayag: Alaknanda + Nandakini.

• Vishnuprayag: Alaknanda + Dhauliganga.

Ganga splits into two branches near Murshidabad, West

Bengal to Padma river (flows through Bangladesh) and Bhagirathi-Hugli river (flows through West Bengal).

• The Ganga is known as Padma (in

Image summary: A map showing the confluence of several rivers leading to the Ganga, starting from sources at Yamunotri, Gangotri, Kedarnath, and Badrinath. The map traces the flow of rivers like the Yamuna, Bhagirathi, Mandakini, and Alaknanda as they merge at five specific points labeled Deva Prayag, Rudra Prayag, Karna Prayag, Nand Prayag, and Vishnu Prayag. The diagram illustrates the geographical convergence of these waterways to form the main course of the Ganga river.

Bangladesh), where it meets Brahmaputra (Jamuna) to form Meghna river and finally drains into Bay of Bengal forming Sundarban Delta.

Farakka Agreement (12th December 1996)

• It is a treaty between India and Bangladesh to share the Ganges river water at the Farakka Barrage where it divides into Hugli river and it became operational on April 21, 1975.

• Mayurakshi, Kangsabati, Damodar, and Rupnarayan are tributaries of Hugli.

Tributaries of Ganga

Right Bank Tributaries:

Yamuna

• Length: 1,370 kilometers (longest tributary of Ganga in the Northern Plains).

Origin: Yamunotri Glacier, Bandarpunch Peak (Uttarakhand).

• Tributaries: Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Ken, Tons (largest tributary of Yamuna).

Chambal River (Tributary of Yamuna)

• Originates from Mhow Plateau (Janapav Hills) of Madhya Pradesh.

• It is well-known for its badland topography (due to ravines formed by gully erosion).

• Tributaries: Banas, Shipra, Kali Sindh, Parvati.

Son/Sone River

• Origin: Amarkantak Plateau (it forms a radial drainage pattern).

• Tributaries: North Koel, Rihand.

• It joins at just above Patna.

Punpun

- Origin: Palamu district of Jharkhand.

• Ganga Plains lies between Ghaggar and Teesta river.

• River Ganga divides

- It joins Ganga at Fatuha near Patna.

Gomti

Bihar into two parts.

Origin: Fulhar lake (Uttar Pradesh).

• It joins Ganga at Kaithi, Ghazipur (Uttar Pradesh).

Ghaghra

• Origin: Mapchachungo glacier (Tibet).

• It is also known as Karnali in Nepal.

• It joins Ganga at Chapra (Bihar).

Sharda (also known as Goriganga)

Origin: Milam Glacier.

• Tributaries: Sharda, Tila, Seti, Beri.

Gandak

• It is also known as Kali river.

Origin: Nhubine Himal glacier (Nepal).

Kosi

• Origin: Nepal Himalayas. It is formed by the confluence of Sun Kosi, Arun Kosi, Tamur Kosi.

• It is also known as “Sorrow of Bihar”, as it brings frequent floods.

• It joins Ganga at Katihar district (Bihar).

• Kosi Agreement (25th April 1954): It was signed between India and Nepal to build and manage the Kosi Barrage for flood control, irrigation, and power generation.

Ramganga

Origin: Dudhatoli ranges (Pauri Garhwal).

• It joins Ganga at Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh.

• It flows through Jim Corbett National Park.

Brahmaputra River System

Image summary: A map of the Brahmaputra River System showing the flow of water from the Chemyungdung Glacier, through the Yarlung Tsangpo, and into the Brahmaputra. It depicts numerous tributaries, including the Dibang, Lohit, Subhansiri, Manas, Teesta, Padma, Jamuna, Kapili, and Dhansiri, which eventually merge into the Meghna and Hooghly. The map illustrates the complex network of rivers that feed into the larger Brahmaputra river basin.

• Length: 2,900 kilometers (length in India: 916 kilometers).

• Origin: Chemayungdung Glacier/Angsi Glacier, Tibet.

• It makes the easternmost boundary of the Himalayas.

Major Tributaries:

• Left Bank: Lohit, Dhansiri, Dibang, Kapili.

• Right Bank: Kameng, Manas, Teesta, Subansiri, Sankosh, Raidak, Jaldhaka.

Teesta river originates from Tso Lhamo lake, Sikkim.

• The Brahmaputra river takes a sharp U-turn at Namcha Barwa (Tibet) and

Names in Different Regions

• Tibet: Yarlung Tsangpo

• Arunachal Pradesh: Siang/Dihang

Assam: Brahmaputra

• Bangladesh: Jamuna

China is developing the world's largest dam on Brahmaputra River near Namcha Barwa range of India - Medong country mega-dam project (or Motuo Hydropower Station).

enters Arunachal Pradesh and then it takes a South turn at Dhubri (Assam).

• Majuli (world's largest river island) and Umananda (world's smallest river island) is located on the Brahmaputra River.

• It forms Sundarbans Delta (largest delta in the world).

• The Barak river originating in Manipur hills, enters Bangladesh as Surma and Kushiyara rivers and later, the river is known as Meghna where it receives the combined flow of the Padma (Ganga in India) and Jamuna (Brahmaputra in India) rivers.

• The region of Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin lies between 10 degrees North to 30 degrees North latitude.

• The Dr. Bhupen Hazarika Bridge, or Dhola-Sadiya Bridge, is India's longest river bridge (9.15 kilometers), connecting Assam and Arunachal Pradesh over the Lohit River.

Table: Columns: Cities, River. Row 1. Cities: Lucknow. River: Gomati. Row 2. Cities: Kanpur/ Allahabad/Varanasi/Patna. River: Ganga. Row 3. Cities: Delhi/Agra. River: Yamuna. Row 4. Cities: Jabalpur. River: Narmada. Row 5. Cities: Ahmedabad. River: Sabarmati. Row 6. Cities: Surat. River: Tapi. Row 7. Cities: Ayodhya. River: Sarayu. Row 8. Cities: Dibrugarh (Assam). River: Brahmaputra. Row 9. Cities: Ujjain. River: Shipra. Row 10. Cities: Nasik. River: Godavari. Row 11. Cities: Amravati. River: Krishna. Row 12. Cities: Kolkata. River: Hugli. Row 13. Cities: Lucknow. River: Gomti. Row 14. Cities: Hyderabad. River: Musi. Row 15. Cities: Kota/Gwalior/Dholpur. River: Chambal. Row 16. Cities: Srinagar. River: Jhelum. Row 17. Cities: Ludhiana. River: Sutlej. Row 18. Cities: Jamshedpur. River: Subarnarekha. Row 19. Cities: Vijayawada. River: Krishna.

Peninsular Rivers

• The Peninsular Rivers originate in the Deccan Plateau, flowing into the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian Sea. They are seasonal/ ephemeral, relying on monsoon rains, with shorter courses and gentler slopes than Himalayan Rivers.

Based on the direction of flow, they are divided into two categories

1. East Flowing Rivers: These rivers flow from West to East due to the natural tilt of the Deccan Plateau and drain into the Bay of Bengal. They form delta. Eg. Damodar, Subarnarekha, Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, Pennar, Baitarani and Brahmani.

2. West Flowing Rivers: These rivers flow from East to West and drain into the Arabian Sea. They form estuary. Eg. Narmada, Tapti, Mahi, Sabarmati, and Luni rivers.

Image summary: A map of India depicting the paths of east flowing peninsular rivers, with a legend identifying the Damodar, Mahanadi, Baitarani, Brahmani, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Pennar, and Vaigai. The map shows these rivers originating in the interior and flowing eastward toward the coast. The point is to illustrate the geographic distribution and flow direction of the major eastern river systems in southern and central India.

Damodar

• The Damodar River originates and flows through the rift valley in the Chotanagpur Plateau of Jharkhand.

• It flows through Jharkhand and West Bengal before joining the Hugli River (a distributary of the Ganga).

• It is also known as “Sorrow of Bengal” because of devastating floods it causes in West Bengal.

• Tributaries: Bokaro, Barakar, Konar.

Subarnarekha

• Subarnarekha River originates in the Ranchi Plateau of Jharkhand.

• It flows through Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Odisha.

• The river's sand contains gold particle, which is why it is named Subarnarekha (meaning "Streak of Gold").

Baitarani

• Baitarani river originates from Gonasika/Guptaganga hills in Odisha.

Brahmani

• It is formed by the confluence of the Sankh and South Koel rivers near Rourkela, Odisha (later joins Baitarani to form a delta).

Some Important Facts

• A.P.J Abdul Kalam Islands (formerly known as Wheeler Islands) is located near the mouth of Dhamra river (the confluence of Baitarani and Brahmani).

• Bhitarkanika National Park in Odisha is located in the delta of the Brahmani, Baitarani, and Dhamra rivers.

• Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary (world's largest) and Rushikulya beach (second largest) are the largest nesting site for Olive Ridley Turtles in India.

Mahanadi

• Mahanadi river is 900 kilometers in length and is the 3rd largest Peninsular river.

• Mahanadi river originates from Sihawa hills in Chhattisgarh.

• The river flows through Chhattisgarh and Odisha before draining into Bay of Bengal. Its basin extends across Jharkhand, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.

• The Eastern Ghats start from the south of the Mahanadi River.

• Tributaries: Tel, Jonk, Ong, Hasdeo, Mand, Ib, and Seonath. Godavari

• It is also known as “Dakshin Ganga” or “Vridha Ganga”.

• It originates from Trimbakeshwar Plateau (Western Ghats) in Nasik, Maharashtra.

• It flows through Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.

• The decommissioned Havelock Bridge has been built over Godavari River.

Trick to Remember Tributaries (M S W.W.1 P.P.P)

Manjira Sabari Wainganga Wardha Indravati Penganga Purna Pranhita

• Other Tributaries: Pravara, Manair.

Gautami river (distributary river of Godavari) is a branch of Godavari that joins Bay of Bengal through Yanam enclave.

Krishna

• The length of Krishna River is 1400 kilometers and is the second longest river of South India.

• It originates from the Western Ghats at Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra.

• It flows through Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.

• Tributaries: Bhima, Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Musi, Koyna, Dudhganga, Yerla, Warna and Dindi.

Pennar

• The Pennar river originates from Nandi Hills, Karnataka (Chikkaballapur).

• It is also known as 'Uttara Pinakini'.

• It is an independent flowing river of Andhra Pradesh.

• Palar River & Ponnaiyar River both originate from Nandi Hills in Karnataka. Both are east flowing rivers and pass through the states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

Kaveri

• The length of Kaveri River is 800 kilometers.

• It originates from Brahmagiri Hills, Kodagu district, Karnataka.

• It flows through Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Puducherry.

• It is the only river of South India that flows throughout the year (Perennial River).

• It is known as “Ganga of South India” (the flow of the river is like Ganga and the tributaries resemble Ganga).

• Tributaries: Hemavati, Kabini, Bhavani, Shimsha, Amaravati.

• The Kaveri delta is known as “Granary of South India”.

• It is known as “Ponni” in Tamil Nadu.

• It is a long-standing conflict primarily between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the sharing of the Cauvery River's water, which also involves Kerala and Puducherry.

Vaigai

• It is the southernmost river of India.

Luni

Image summary: A map of India depicting four west-flowing peninsular rivers: the Luni, Mahi, Narmada, and Tapi. The map illustrates their paths originating in different regions and flowing westward toward the coast. The purpose of the figure is to show the geographical distribution and trajectory of the major west-flowing river systems in India.

• It is also known as “Lavanavari” or “Lavanavati” river.

• It originates from Nag Pahar/Nag hills in the Ajmer district of Rajasthan.

• It flows through Rajasthan and Gujarat.

• The Luni River is an endorheic river, meaning it drains into an inland basin and does not reach the sea. Instead, it ends in the Rann of Kutch.

• It is the only major river in India that contains saline water due to its high rate of evaporation.

Mahi

Mahi river originates from the Vindhya mountains.

• It flows through Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

• It crosses the Tropic of Cancer twice.

Narmada

• The length of Narmada river is 1312 kilometers. It is the longest west flowing river that drains itself into the Arabian Sea (flows into Gulf of Khambhat).

• It originates from Amarkantak Plateau in Madhya Pradesh.

• It flows through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.

• The Narmada River flows through a rift valley between the Vindhya and Satpura mountain ranges in India.

• Tributaries: Banjar, Tawa, Shakkar, Halon.

Tapi/Tapi

• The length of Tapi river is 724 kilometers.

• It originates from Multai in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh in the Satpura Range and of its basin lies in Maharashtra.

• It flows through Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.

• Tapti river flows through a rift valley alongside Narmada (2nd longest westward flowing river).

• Tributaries: Aner, Gomai, Purna, Bori, Girna, Arunawati.

• Surat is located on the banks of this river.

Rivers of Goa

• Zuari river: It forms an estuary that meets Arabian Sea at Mormugaon Bay in Goa.

• Mandovi river: It is known as "lifeline of goa". It forms an estuary and the city of Panaji is located on the bank of this river.

Rivers of Kerala

• Bharathapuzha: It is also known as Ponnani River.

• Periyar: It is known as “lifeline of Kerala” and is the longest river in Kerala.

Pamba: It drains into Vembanad lake.

River of Karnataka

Kali: It is also known as Kalinadi river.

• Sharavati: Jog waterfall is on the Sharavati river.

• Varahi: Kunchikal waterfalls (highest waterfall in India) is on the Varahi River.

Hydroelectric Power Projects & Multipurpose Projects

• A dam is a structure built across a river to store water, generate electricity, control floods, and irrigation. Many dams in India serve multiple purposes, such as irrigation, hydroelectric power, and drinking water supply and that is why they are also known as Multipurpose Projects.

• Jawaharlal Nehru called dams the “Temples of Modern India”.

Drawbacks

• Displacement of communities: They displace a large number of tribals or peasants residing in the affected areas. Large-scale dam construction often leads to the forced relocation of thousands.

• Multi-purpose projects can significantly harm ecosystems. They cause biodiversity loss.

• These projects often create disputes between states and countries over water-sharing rights. This can lead to political tensions, legal battles, and conflicts over resource allocation.

Hydroelectric Power Generation

• In hydroelectric power plant Potential Energy of stored water is first converted to Kinetic Energy when the water falls into turbines which in turn convert it into electrical energy.

Major Dams/Projects

1. {Damodar Valley Project}

• It is India's first river valley project (1948) based on the Tennessee River Project (U.S.A).

The Damodar River has four main dams:

Table: Columns: Dams, Location, River. Row 1. Dams: Maithon. Location: Jharkhand. River: Barakar river. Row 2. Tilaiya. Row 3. Panchet, Damodar. Row 4. Konar, Konar.

2. Bhakra Nangal Project

• Built on: Sutlej River (during the First Five-Year Plan).

• It is India's highest Gravity Dam and the largest dam in terms of area.

• It consists of two dams: Bhakra Dam (located in Himachal Pradesh, which also forms Gobind Sagar Lake) and Nangal Dam (located in Punjab).

3. {Hirakud Dam}

• Built on: Mahanadi River (Sambalpur district of Odisha).

• It is the longest earthen dam in the world (the main dam is

4.8 kilometers long and the dam and dykes together measure 25.8 kilometers).

4. Tehri Dam

• Built on: Bhagirathi River (Uttarakhand).

• It is the highest dam of India (Height: 261 m).

5. Farakka Dam

• Built on: Ganga River (West Bengal).

• This dam was built to provide water to Hugli River.

Table: Row 1: Jammu and Kashmir. Row 2: Dams, Rivers. Row 3: Dul Hasti Dam, Chenab River. Row 4: Baglihar Dam. Row 5: Salal Hydroelectric Project. Row 6: Rattle Hydroelectric Project. Row 7: Kishanganga Project, Jhelum River. Row 8: Tulbul Project. Row 9: Uri Project. Row 10: Himachal Pradesh. Row 11: Pong Dam (Maharana Pratap Sagar Dam), Beas River. Row 12: Chamera Dam, Ravi River. Row 13: Baira Siul Dam. Row 14: Bassi Dam. Row 15: Nathpa Jhakri Dam, Sutlej River. Row 16: Punjab. Row 17: Thein Dam (Ranjit Sagar Dam), Ravi River. Row 18: Shahpur Dam. Row 19: Harike Dam ^*, Beas + Sutlej. Row 20: Uttar Pradesh. Row 21: Matatila Dam, Betwa River. Row 22: Lakshmibai Dam. Row 23: Rihand Dam ^*, Rihand River. Row 24: Uttarakhand. Row 25: Tehri Dam, Bhagirathi River. Row 26: Lakhwar Dam, Yamuna River. Row 27: Gujarat. Row 28: Ukai Dam, Tapi River. Row 29: Kakrapar Dam. Row 30: Sardar Sarovar Dam, Narmada River. Row 31: Kandana Dam, Mahi River. Row 32: Madhya Pradesh. Row 33: Tawa Dam, Tawa River (Tributary of Narmada river). Row 34: Omkareshwar Dam, Narmada River. Row 35: Indira Sagar Dam. Row 36: Ban Sagar Dam, Son River. Row 37: Gandhi Sagar Dam, Chambal River.

Indira Gandhi Canal (longest canal of India) originates from Harike Dam

Table: Row 1: Rajasthan. Row 2: Mahi Bajaj Sagar, Mahi River. Row 3: Rana Pratap Sagar (at Rawatbhata), Chambal River. Row 4: Jawahar Sagar. Row 5: Bisalpur Dam, Banas River. Row 6: Maharashtra. Row 7: Jayakwadi Dam, Godavari River. Row 8: Koyna Dam (largest dam in Maharashtra), Koyna River. Row 9: Dhom Dam, Krishna River. Row 10: Ujjani Dam, Bhima River. Row 11: Isapur Dam, Penganga River. Row 12: Bhushi Dam, Indrayani River. Row 13: Jharkhand. Row 14: Panchet Dam, Damodar River. Row 15: Maithon Dam, Barakar River (Tributary of Damodar river). Row 16: Tilaiya Dam. Row 17: Patratu Dam, Nalkari River. Row 18: Konar Dam, Konar River. Row 19: Massanjore Dam ^*, Mayurakshi River. Row 20: Chhattisgarh. Row 21: Indravati Dam, Godavari River. Row 22: Hasdeo Bango Dam, Hasdeo River (largest Tributary of Mahanadi). Row 23: Telangana. Row 24: Pochampad Dam (Sriram Sagar Project), Godavari River. Row 25: Kaleshwaram Dam ^*. Row 26: Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, Krishna River. Row 27: Nizam Sagar Dam, Manjira River (Tributary of Godavari river). Row 28: Karnataka. Row 29: Linganamakki Dam, Sharavati River. Row 30: Shivnasamudra Dam, Kaveri River. Row 31: Krishna Raja Sagar Dam. Row 32: Almatti Dam, Krishna River. Row 33: Kerala. Row 34: Idukki Dam, Periyar River (Lifeline of Kerala). Row 35: Mullaperiyar Dam. Row 36: Tamil Nadu. Row 37: Mettur Dam, Kaveri River. Row 38: Pykara Dam, Pykara River.

Table: Row 1: Andhra Pradesh. Row 2: Srisailam Dam, Krishna River. Row 3: Nagarjuna Sagar Dam. Row 4: Somasila Dam (Nellore District), Pennar River. Row 5: Maharashtra has the most number of Dams in India followed by Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. Massanjore Dam is located in Dumka, which is sub-capital of Jharkhand. Kaleshwaram Dam is a lift irrigation project..

Table: Columns: Name, River, State. Row 1. Name: Kunchikal (highest waterfall: 455 m). River: Varahi. State: Karnataka (Shimoga). Row 2. Name: Jog/Gersoppa/ Mahatma Gandhi (2nd highest waterfall in India: 253 m). River: Sharavati. State: Karnataka. Row 3. Shivnasamudra, Kaveri. Row 4. Hebbe, Bhadra. Row 5. Gokak, Ghatprabha. Row 6. Name: Chulia. River: Chambal. State: Rajasthan. Row 7. Name: Dhuandhar and Kapildhara. River: Narmada. State: Madhya Pradesh. Row 8. Name: Hundru. River: Subarnarekha. State: Jharkhand. Row 9. Name: Dudh Sagar. River: Mandovi. State: Goa. Row 10. Name: Nohkalikai. River: Fed by Rain water. State: Meghalaya. Row 11. Elephanta, Umshyrpi. Row 12. Name: Vajrai (Bhambavli Vajrai). River: Urmodi. State: Satara, Maharashtra. Row 13. Name: Kune. River: Ulhas. State: Maharashtra. Row 14. Name: Duduma. River: Machkund. State: Koraput, Odisha. Row 15. Name: Barehipani. River: Budhabalanga. State: Odisha. Row 16. Khandadhar, Korapani Nala. Row 17. Name: Athirappilly. River: Chalakudy. State: Kerala. Row 18. Name: Kempty. River: Yamuna. State: Uttarakhand. Row 19. Name: Sirki. River: Siang. State: Arunachal Pradesh.

Table: Columns: Highest waterfall in the world: (Angel waterfall in Venezuela: 979 m) Second highest in the world: Tugela Falls (in Republic of South Africa: 948 m) Niagara Falls of India: (Chitrakote waterfall in Chhattisgarh: 29m), Madhya Pradesh, Bhojtal/Bhopal lake (Asia's largest artificial lake, formally known as Upper lake was constructed by Raja Bhoj (Parmar Dynasty's most famous and powerful ruler, who also established Bhopal city).. Row 1. Highest waterfall in the world: (Angel waterfall in Venezuela: 979 m) Second highest in the world: Tugela Falls (in Republic of South Africa: 948 m) Niagara Falls of India: (Chitrakote waterfall in Chhattisgarh: 29m): State-wise lakes. Madhya Pradesh: Rajasthan. Bhojtal/Bhopal lake (Asia's largest artificial lake, formally known as Upper lake was constructed by Raja Bhoj (Parmar Dynasty's most famous and powerful ruler, who also established Bhopal city).: Pushkar lake (in Ajmer), Sambhar lake (Largest inland saltwater lake), (As Chilika, located in Odisha, is a coastal lake) Jaisamand/Dhebar lake (Second largest artificial lake in Asia, located in Udaipur) Rajsamand Lake Lake Pichola. Row 2. States, Lakes. Row 3. Jammu & Kashmir, Wular Lake (Largest freshwater lake in India, located on Jhelum river and it was formed as a result of tectonic activity) Dal lake (Jewel of Srinagar) Anchar lake Mansar lake. Row 4. Highest waterfall in the world: (Angel waterfall in Venezuela: 979 m) Second highest in the world: Tugela Falls (in Republic of South Africa: 948 m) Niagara Falls of India: (Chitrakote waterfall in Chhattisgarh: 29m): Ladakh. Madhya Pradesh: Pangong Tso lake (In Aksai-Chin border) Tso kar Tso Moriri (All three are salt water lakes). Bhojtal/Bhopal lake (Asia's largest artificial lake, formally known as Upper lake was constructed by Raja Bhoj (Parmar Dynasty's most famous and powerful ruler, who also established Bhopal city).: Bihar. Row 5. Highest waterfall in the world: (Angel waterfall in Venezuela: 979 m) Second highest in the world: Tugela Falls (in Republic of South Africa: 948 m) Niagara Falls of India: (Chitrakote waterfall in Chhattisgarh: 29m): Uttarakhand. Madhya Pradesh: Dodital lake Bhimtal lake Roop Kund lake (Skeleton Lake) Nainital lake Suryadhar lake. Bhojtal/Bhopal lake (Asia's largest artificial lake, formally known as Upper lake was constructed by Raja Bhoj (Parmar Dynasty's most famous and powerful ruler, who also established Bhopal city).: Odisha. Row 6. Highest waterfall in the world: (Angel waterfall in Venezuela: 979 m) Second highest in the world: Tugela Falls (in Republic of South Africa: 948 m) Niagara Falls of India: (Chitrakote waterfall in Chhattisgarh: 29m): Himachal Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh: Govind Sagar lake Renuka lake Khajjiar lake Chamera lake. Bhojtal/Bhopal lake (Asia's largest artificial lake, formally known as Upper lake was constructed by Raja Bhoj (Parmar Dynasty's most famous and powerful ruler, who also established Bhopal city).: Maharashtra. Row 7. Highest waterfall in the world: (Angel waterfall in Venezuela: 979 m) Second highest in the world: Tugela Falls (in Republic of South Africa: 948 m) Niagara Falls of India: (Chitrakote waterfall in Chhattisgarh: 29m): Uttar Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh: Keetham lake/Sur Sarovar (in Agra) - Man-made reservoir, added to Ramsar site in the year 2020. Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar (Largest artificial lake in India, located in Sonbhadra district).. Bhojtal/Bhopal lake (Asia's largest artificial lake, formally known as Upper lake was constructed by Raja Bhoj (Parmar Dynasty's most famous and powerful ruler, who also established Bhopal city).: Kerala. Row 8. Highest waterfall in the world: (Angel waterfall in Venezuela: 979 m) Second highest in the world: Tugela Falls (in Republic of South Africa: 948 m) Niagara Falls of India: (Chitrakote waterfall in Chhattisgarh: 29m): Haryana. Madhya Pradesh: Surajkund lake Sultanpur lake. Bhojtal/Bhopal lake (Asia's largest artificial lake, formally known as Upper lake was constructed by Raja Bhoj (Parmar Dynasty's most famous and powerful ruler, who also established Bhopal city).: Telangana. Row 9. Highest waterfall in the world: (Angel waterfall in Venezuela: 979 m) Second highest in the world: Tugela Falls (in Republic of South Africa: 948 m) Niagara Falls of India: (Chitrakote waterfall in Chhattisgarh: 29m): Punjab. Madhya Pradesh: Sukhna lake (in Chandigarh, on the border of Punjab & Haryana) Harike lake (wetland) Ropar lake. Bhojtal/Bhopal lake (Asia's largest artificial lake, formally known as Upper lake was constructed by Raja Bhoj (Parmar Dynasty's most famous and powerful ruler, who also established Bhopal city).: Andhra Pradesh. Row 10. Highest waterfall in the world: (Angel waterfall in Venezuela: 979 m) Second highest in the world: Tugela Falls (in Republic of South Africa: 948 m) Niagara Falls of India: (Chitrakote waterfall in Chhattisgarh: 29m): Gujarat. Madhya Pradesh: Nalsarovar lake Rann of Kutch lake Thol lake (Ramsar site in 2021). Bhojtal/Bhopal lake (Asia's largest artificial lake, formally known as Upper lake was constructed by Raja Bhoj (Parmar Dynasty's most famous and powerful ruler, who also established Bhopal city).: Tamil Nadu.

Table: Columns: Assam, Haflong lake Chandubi lake Deepor Beel lake. Row 1. Assam: Sikkim. Haflong lake Chandubi lake Deepor Beel lake: Gurudongmar lake (Highest lake in India) Tso Lhamo lake/Cholamu lake Tsomgo Chho lake. Row 2. Assam: Meghalaya. Haflong lake Chandubi lake Deepor Beel lake: Barapani/Umiam lake in Shillong.. Row 3. Assam: Manipur. Haflong lake Chandubi lake Deepor Beel lake: Loktak lake - World's only floating lake (it is famous for phumdis floating over it. Keibul Lamjao National Park (world's only floating National Park) is located here.. Row 4. Assam: Tripura. Haflong lake Chandubi lake Deepor Beel lake: Rudrasagar lake.

Some Facts

Largest lake in the world: Caspian Sea

• Highest Navigable lake in the world: Lake Titicaca (Peru & Bolivia)

• deepest lake of the world: Lake Baikal (Russia)

• Largest Freshwater Lake in the world: Lake Superior (U.S.A & Canada)

Image summary: A map of India labeling various lakes across different states and union territories. Key examples include Pangong Lake in Ladakh, Chilika Lake in Odisha, and Vembanad in Kerala, with a side list highlighting record-holders such as the Wular Lake as the largest freshwater lake and Sambhar Lake as the largest saltwater lake. The map serves as a geographic reference for the distribution and types of major lakes in India.

Important Lakes of India

Monsoon

Factors Affecting Climate of Any Place

1. Latitude: The Tropic of Cancer divides India into tropical and subtropical zones.

2. Altitude: As the altitude (height) increases, the atmosphere becomes thinner leading to low temperature and air pressure.

3. Himalayas: They act as a barrier to cold winds and influence monsoonal flow.

4. Distribution of Land and Water: Differential heating of land and sea create pressure differences.

5. Distance from the Sea: Coastal regions have moderate climates, while inland regions experience extreme temperatures.

6. Pressure and Wind Systems: Influence monsoon winds and seasonal variations.

7. Relief Features: Mountains cause orographic rainfall, and plateaus influence wind movement.

8. Ocean Currents: They influence temperature and rainfall patterns.

Climate vs Weather

• Climate: The average weather of a place over a long period (30 years or more). It includes the average temperature, humidity, rainfall, and other weather conditions.

• Weather: The day-to-day short-term atmospheric conditions like temperature, wind, and precipitation.

Seasons in India

Winter Season (December-February)

• Winter season is affected by Cold, dry, chilling winds from Arctic/Central Asia, but they are blocked to a certain extent by the Himalayas.

• Jet Streams: They are high-speed winds that blow in Upper Troposphere (9 to 13 altitude) that influence Northern Plains, this causes winter rainfall by bringing Western Disturbances (known as “Mahawat” in Rajasthan).

• Western Cyclonic Disturbances: Cyclonic storms from the Mediterranean Sea and Caspian Sea bring winter rainfall.

• Winter Rainfall is beneficial for cultivation of Rabi crops.

Image summary: A map depicting the path of Western Disturbances, showing a dashed red line tracking weather systems from the Mediterranean Sea across Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan into India, specifically toward Uttarakhand. The map illustrates how these disturbances travel eastward across West Asia to bring weather effects to the Indian subcontinent.

• An increase in the prevailing night temperature in winter months in Northern parts of India generally indicates the arrival of Western Disturbances in India.

Arrival of Western Disturbances in India

Summer Season (March-May)

• The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (I.T.C.Z) is a low-pressure zone located near to equator where trade winds converge and air tends to ascend.

• It is shifted around 20 degrees North to 25 degrees North latitudes (over the Gangetic plain) in July month and is sometimes called the monsoon trough.

• This monsoon trough leads to the formation of thermal low over north and northwest regions in India.

: Image summary: A map of Asia, Africa, and Australia illustrating atmospheric circulation. Subtropical Westerly jet streams are shown as thick blue arrows flowing west to east above the Tibetan Plateau and south of Australia, while surface winds are depicted as thinner black arrows moving from high pressure areas toward the equator and the Indian Ocean. The map demonstrates how high-pressure systems and jet streams drive global wind patterns across the Eastern Hemisphere.

• Intense heating of the Tibetan Plateau creates low pressure, attracting winds.

• Intertropical Convergence Zone (I.T.C.Z) shifts northward, leading to the onset of the southwest monsoon over the Indian subcontinent.

• Easterly jet streams blowing at 13 to 14 degrees North latitude on the Indian subcontinent also help in the arrival of monsoon.

• High pressure on East of Madagascar also facilitates monsoon.

Monsoon Winds and Subtropical Jet Streams

Pre-Monsoon Showers

• Pre-monsoon is the period of rainfall that occurs in the summer before the rainy season.

Pre-Monsoon Showers across India

• Nor westers: They are known as Kal Baisakhi (calamity in the month of Baisakh) in West Bengal (they help in growth of jute and tea crops) and Bardoli Chheerah/Bordoisila in Assam.

• Blossom Showers in Kerala and nearby areas: They help in growth and cultivation of coffee crops.

- Mango Showers in coastal Karnataka and Kerala: They help in early ripening of mangoes.

Monsoon Season (June-September)

• The term “Monsoon” is derived from an Arabic word “Mausim” meaning seasonal reversal of winds.

• Onset of monsoon: It begins in Kerala (first week of June) in the Western ghats (orographic rainfall).

• Rain Shadow Zone: Areas like Leeward side of Western Ghats receive less rain.

• Southwest Monsoon is divided into two branches: Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea Branch.

• Both branches meet Northwest of Ganga Valley and Punjab Plains.

• Highest rainfall recorded in: Mawsynram and Cherrapunji (Khasi Hills of Meghalaya).

• Break in Monsoon: A temporary period during the monsoon season, when there is a significant decrease or complete absence of rainfall.

Image summary: A map of South Asia depicting the flow of the Southwest Monsoon from the Indian Ocean. Arrows show two distinct paths: the Arabian branch moving from the Arabian Sea into western India, and the Bay of Bengal branch moving from the Bay of Bengal into eastern and northern India. A text box notes that rainfall decreases from east to west, indicating that the Bay of Bengal branch contributes more precipitation than the Arabian branch.

Orographic Rainfall

Retreating Monsoon (October-November).

• Monsoon starts its retrieval from northwest part. When it passes from Bay of Bengal it causes cyclonic disturbances and also causes heavy rainfall in Coromandel Coast (Tamil Nadu). This is called North-East monsoon or Retreating monsoon.

• "October heat" refers to the rising temperature and

humidity in India during October due to retreating monsoons and clear skies, leading to oppressive weather conditions.

Leh on being the Rain Shadow

Zone of the Himalayas experiences least rainfall.

Area of High Rainfall: Western side of Western Ghats, Meghalaya, Brahmaputra Valley.

Area of Medium Rainfall: Eastern part of Tamil Nadu, North-East Peninsula, Parts of Madhya Pradesh, Cachar Valley (Assam).

Area of Low Rainfall: Western U.P, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir, Eastern Rajasthan.

Inadequate Rainfall: Western Rajasthan (leeward side of aravali), Ladakh.

. Image summary: A map of South Asia depicting winter monsoon patterns, with arrows showing winds flowing from the northeast and north toward the south and southwest. Color-coded shading indicates precipitation levels, with the vast majority of the region receiving between 0 and 180 mm, and only small, isolated areas in the north and far south reaching 300 to 600 mm. The map shows that winter monsoon winds generally bring low levels of precipitation across most of the subcontinent.

: Image summary: Two maps of the Pacific Ocean comparing sea surface temperatures and wind patterns during El Niño and La Niña years. During El Niño, warm water shifts east toward South America, and winds weaken or reverse. During La Niña, warm water is pushed further west toward Australia and Indonesia, with stronger easterly winds. The point is to illustrate the opposing shifts in ocean temperature and atmospheric circulation that define the El Niño Southern Oscillation.

Retreating Monsoon causing Cyclonic disturbances

Effects of La Niña and El Niño

La Niña and El Niño

• In relation to El Niño and La Niña, Darwin (Australia) experiences higher air pressure than Tahiti during an El Niño, while during a La Niña, the pressure is higher in Tahiti compared to Darwin.

Table: Columns: La Niña, El Niño. Row 1. La Niña: Meaning: Small girl. El Niño: Meaning: Child Christ/Small boy. Row 2. La Niña: Below average sea surface temperature in east-central equatorial Pacific (cold phase of ENSO cycle). El Niño: Above average sea temperatures in east-central equatorial Pacific (warm phase of ENSO cycle). Row 3. La Niña: Trade winds strengthen, pushing warm water western Pacific. El Niño: Trade winds weaken, allowing warm water to spread eastwards. Row 4. La Niña: It is seen every 2 to 7 yrs. El Niño: It is seen every 3 to 7 yrs. Row 5. La Niña: Pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin is positive. El Niño: Pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin is negative. Row 6. La Niña: It can cause intense rainfall in Australia and India along with heavy floods; drier conditions in South America. El Niño: It can cause droughts in Asia and Australia and in the US. India experiences below average and late monsoon. Row 7. La Niña: Fishing industries in South America coast will flourish. El Niño: Fishing industries won't flourish.

Variation in Temperature & Rainfall

• Diurnal Temperature Range: It is the difference between the highest and lowest temperatures in a 24-hour period.

• Annual Temperature Range: It is the difference between the average temperature of the hottest month and the average temperature of the coldest month.

• Annual Rainfall Variation: It is the difference in the amount of rainfall received over a year, either across different regions or within the same region over multiple years.

Continentality Effect

• It is the experience of extreme

weather conditions due to distance from the sea.

• The far we go from the ocean into the continent, the moderating influence of sea decreases and the climate becomes more extreme, this is called continentality effect.

→ Coastal cities do not experience extreme climate due to "moderating influence of sea". Eg. Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, etcetera

→ Whereas cities like Kanpur, Delhi, Jalandhar experiences extreme climate due to continentality effect.

Madden-Julian Oscillation

The Madden-Julian Oscillation (M.J.O) is a planetary-scale, eastward-moving waves of clouds and rainfall that circles the equator every 30 to 60 days.

Image summary: A diagram depicting atmospheric circulation over a map of Asia and the Pacific. Air moves upward from the surface at 850 mb in the west, creating stormy and wet conditions, then travels eastward at 200 mb before descending in the east to create sunny and dry conditions. This cycle illustrates the atmospheric mechanism driving regional climate patterns through contrasting upward and downward air motion.

Indian-Ocean Dipole:

• Indian dipole" refers to the Indian Ocean Dipole (I.O.D), a climate phenomenon in the Indian Ocean characterized by a difference in sea surface temperatures between its western and eastern poles.

• Positive I.O.D is associated with Good Rainfall in India.

Image summary: A diagram of the Indian Ocean Dipole in its negative phase, showing a cycle of atmospheric and oceanic interactions. Warmer than normal sea surface temperatures in the eastern Indian Ocean near Australia lead to increased convection and a higher chance of rain, while the western Indian Ocean near Africa remains cooler than normal with a reduced chance of rain. This structure creates a feedback loop where warm eastern waters drive atmospheric circulation that sustains the temperature gradient.

Image summary: A map diagram showing the positive phase of a climate cycle across Africa, India, and Australia. This phase is characterized by warmer than normal temperatures in the Indian Ocean leading to an increased chance of rain in Africa, while Australia experiences a reduced chance of rain and other regions are cooler than normal. The overall cycle is depicted as a clockwise flow of atmospheric and oceanic interactions.

Koeppen Climate Classification (1884)

• It is an empirical classification for categorising the world's climates into five main groups. It's based on average monthly and annual temperatures and precipitation.

Table: Columns: Classification Groups, Characteristics. Row 1. Classification Groups: A: Tropical. Characteristics: Average temperature of the coldest month is 18 degrees Celsius or higher. Row 2. Classification Groups: B: Dry Climate. Characteristics: Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation. Row 3. Classification Groups: C: Warm Temperate. Characteristics: The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climate years is higher than -3 degrees Celsius but below 18 degrees Celsius. Row 4. Classification Groups: D: Cold Snow Forest. Characteristics: The average temperature of the coldest month is -3 degrees Celsius or below. Row 5. Classification Groups: E: Polar Type (Cold)/Tundra. Characteristics: Average temperature for all months is below 10 degrees Celsius.

: Image summary: A map of India divided into various climatic regions according to Koeppen's scheme. Regions are labeled with codes such as Aw, Amw, and Cwg, referring to a legend that defines characteristics like Steppe, Desert, Monsoon, and winter or summer dryness. The map highlights a range of climates from cold polar and snow forest types in the far north to tropical monsoon and winter dry climates in the south, showing that India's geography encompasses a diverse array of climatic conditions.

I have a Question for you! Let's see if you can crack it!

Q. What will be the Koeppen Climatic classification of Mediterranean region located just above the Tropic of Cancer region and having no rainfall in summers?

Vegetation/Forests

• India's vegetation is broadly divided into 5 groups.

1. Evergreen Forests/Tropical Rainforests

• They are layered forests (due to different stratas present in the forest).

Different Stratas in Evergreen Forest

1. Top vertical: Trees.

2. Middle vertical: Shrubs.

3. Bottom: Herbs and Bushes.

• They appear green all year because the trees in these forests don't shed their leaves at the same

• Herbs are smaller, have soft stems, less branching. • Shrubs are taller, have woody and hard stems, are profusely branched, and are mainly perennial

time. Evergreen forests are also known as Deserts covered by trees because soil of these forests is low in humus due to high rate of decomposition of organic material.

• They are seen in places of high-temperature (above 22 degrees Celsius ) and high rainfall (200 centimeters).

• In India, they are seen in western side of Western Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, North-East, Tamil Nadu coast (Dry Evergreen in Tamil Nadu & Coromandel Coast).

• Tropical evergreen forests have the highest biodiversity on Earth.

• The dry part of Evergreen Forest has Semi-Evergreen vegetation like Cedar, Hallock and Kail.

• Vegetation seen: Ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber, cinchona and epiphytes.

Cinchona bark is primarily known for its use in treating and preventing malaria due to the quinine and other alkaloids it contains.

2. {Deciduous Forest}

• These are the most widespread forest of India and are also called Monsoon forests.

• They are spread over a region, receiving rainfall between 70 centimeters and 200 centimeters. They shed their leaves for 6 to 8 weeks during summer.

• Deciduous forests are also found in the foothills of the Himalayas.

• Hardwood Trees are prominent here.

They are broadly divided into two categories:

1. Moist deciduous

2. Dry deciduous (Also Known as Parkland Landscape)

Table: Columns: Moist Deciduous, Dry Deciduous. Row 1. Moist Deciduous: Found in: Areas receiving rainfall 150 to 200 centimeters.. Dry Deciduous: Found in: Areas receiving rainfall 70 to 150 centimeters..

Table: Columns: Mostly in eastern part: Northeastern states, foothills of Himalayas, Jharkhand, West, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh and on eastern slopes of Western Ghats, Mostly in rainier part of Peninsular Plateau and plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Row 1. Mostly in eastern part: Northeastern states, foothills of Himalayas, Jharkhand, West, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh and on eastern slopes of Western Ghats: Eg. Teak (most dominant), bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun, and mulberry, etcetera. Mostly in rainier part of Peninsular Plateau and plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh: Eg. Teak, sal, peepal, neem, tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etcetera. Row 2. ^*Tendu leaves are used to make Bidi. On the wetter margins, it has a transition to the moist deciduous, while in the drier margins to thorn forests..

3. {Thorn Forests}

• Found in: Regions with less than 50 centimeters of rainfall.

• Thorns are modified form of leaves (to avoid water loss).

• These forests are seen in Northwestern part of the country (semi-arid areas) of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana.

• Main plant species: Acacias, palms, euphorbias, cacti, etcetera

• Special type of grass is seen here: Tussocky grass (height up to: 2m).

• Trees are scattered with long roots penetrating deep inside soil.

4. Montane Forests

• Montane forests are found in mountainous areas.

• In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to the corresponding change in natural vegetation.

• These forests cover mostly the southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having high altitudes in southern and northeast India.

• There is succession of natural vegetation belts in same order as we see from Tropical to Tundra region.

• Montane pastures are extensively used for grazing by nomadic tribes (Gujjars and Bakarwals). - Also called transhumance activity.

Succession with Changing Altitude

• Foothills of Himalayas: Deciduous forests.

• 1000 to 2000 m: Wet Temperate Forests; Evergreen Broad Leaf Trees (Oaks, Chestnuts, etcetera).

• 1500 to 3000 m: Temperate Forests are characterized by Coniferous trees (pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce, and cedar, etcetera).

• Above 3600 m: Temperate Forests and grasslands to Alpine vegetation (silverfir, junipers, pines, rhododendrons, and birches, etcetera).

• Shrubs + Scrubs: Alpine grasslands (also called Bugyals).

• At higher altitudes: Mosses + Lichens (Tundra vegetation).

Image summary: A diagram of a mountain illustrating vegetation zones across different elevations, with rainfall in millimeters shown on the right axis. As elevation increases from the Tropical Zone at the base to the Alpine Zone at the peak, the vegetation transitions from dense forests to sparse trees and eventually to snow above the treeline. The diagram shows that rainfall is highest in the lower tropical zones and decreases as elevation increases, demonstrating how altitude and precipitation together determine the distribution of vegetation zones.

Southern Montane Forests

• These forests are found in three distinct areas of

Peninsular India: Western Ghats, Vindhyas, Nilgiris.

• They are closer to tropics implies Only 1500 meters above sea level.

Vegetation includes:

• Temperate: In higher regions.

• Subtropical: On lower regions of Western Ghats (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka).

• Temperate grasslands/forests: They are called Sholas in Nilgiris (Western Ghats), Anaimalai and Palani hills.

5. {Mangrove Forests}

• They are known as Littoral/Swamp forests.

• They are mostly seen in the coastal areas that are highly influenced by

Image summary: A photo of a dense thicket of mangrove trees with prominent prop roots extending into shallow water. The image depicts a specific vegetation zone characterized by salt-tolerant plants adapted to coastal aquatic environments.

tides to the deltas of Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Godavari and the Kaveri are covered by such vegetations.

• They are found more in Sundarban delta to Sundari trees are found here (region: West Bengal). Palm, coconut, keora, agar trees are also found.

• The trees are viviparous (produce embryos that develop before detaching from the parent plant) and are also called Pneumatophores (living roots).

Coniferous Forests

• They are seen in areas of high snowfall leads to Upper Himalayas in India.

• The trees in coniferous forest are cone-shaped, which helps them to shed snow in cold climates.

• Trees include: Softwood trees such as Chir, pine, cedar, deodar (Wood used in construction activities), spruce, etcetera

Miyawaki Forest: A dense, multi-layered forest created using a method developed by Japanese botanist Akira Miyawaki.

Biomes/Forests across the World

• Temperate Evergreen Forests: Found in mid-latitudinal coastal areas (U.S, Canada, Europe, Asia). They lie on the eastern coastal margins.

• Temperate Deciduous Forests: They are found between North and South of equator where rainfall is high (between 500 to 1500 millimeters a year) to Birds like Pheasant and Monal are found here (35 to 50 degrees North South).

Taiga/Boreal Biome (untouched): 50 degrees minus 70 degrees North/South.

• Tundra: Beyond 70 degrees North/South (in Arctics).

Taiga Forest : (In Russian language, Taiga means "pure" or "untouched" land)

• Also Known as Boreal/Subarctic Coniferous Forest.

• Flora: Spruce, Pine, Fir, Moss, Lichens, and Mushrooms.

• Fauna: Bear, Lynx, Moose, Salmon, Owl and Mosquito.

Tundra Biome:

• The Tundra is a cold, treeless biome in the Arctic.

Antarctic, and high mountain tops.

• Flora: Moss, Lichens, Grass and Low shrubs.

• Fauna: Polar Bear, Arctic fox, Caribou, arctic hare, snowy owl and Ptarmigan.

{Temperate Deciduous}

• A biome characterized by four distinct seasons, where the dominant trees are broad-leaved and shed their leaves in the autumn to conserve energy during winter.

Birds like Pheasant and Monal are seen here.

Indian State of Forest Reports

• It is released by Forest Survey of India (F.S.I).

• It was first published in 1987 (It is a Biennial report).

• 18th Indian State of Forest Reports was published in: 2023.

According to 2023 Report:

• Forest cover: 21.7%.

Tree cover: 3.41%.

Forest + Trees cover: 25.17%.

• Forest cover (area-wise):

Madhya Pradesh greater than Arunachal Pradesh greater than Chhattisgarh.

• Forest cover (% wise):

Lakshadweep greater than Mizoram greater than Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• Maximum increase (Forest + Tree cover): Chhattisgarh greater than Uttar Pradesh.

• Maximum increase (Forest cover): Mizoram greater than Gujarat.

• Largest decrease: Madhya Pradesh greater than Karnataka.

• Indian Forest Policy (N.F.P) 1952 (last revised in 1988) states that: 33% geographical area should be under forest or tree cover.

{Social Forestry}

• Social forestry means the management and protection of forest and afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social, and rural development.

Chipko Movement

• The Chipko Movement was a forest conservation movement in India.

• It began in 1973 in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand (then Uttar Pradesh) to Led by Sunderlal Bahuguna along with local villagers to protect trees from being cut down by government backed commercial loggers.

• Forest Day is celebrated on: 21st March.

• Indian Forest Research Institute is located in Dehradun, Uttarakhand.

Grasslands

Types of Grasslands

Table: Columns: Tropical Grasslands, Temperate Grasslands. Row 1. Tropical Grasslands: They have tall, non-nutritious, elephant grass. Temperate Grasslands: They are short and nutritious. Row 2. Tropical Grasslands: Different names around the world: Savannah: Africa (known as Big Game country due to extreme poaching of animals) Campos: Brazil Llanos: Venezuela. Temperate Grasslands: Different names around the world: Prairies: North America (known as wheat granaries of the world) Steppes: Asia / Europe Velds: South Africa Downs: Australia Pustaz: Hungary Canterbury: New Zealand Pampas: Argentina (Alfalfa grass, a nutrient rich grass is seen here).

Soil

• The study of soil is called Pedology.

• Soil is a renewable natural resource made up of organic (humus) and inorganic materials.

Humus: A soil component that is dark, organic matter from decomposing plants and animals.

Factors Affecting Soil Formation

• Parent Rock: It determines soil color, texture, mineral content, and permeability.

• Climate: Temperature and rainfall affect the rate of weathering and humus formation.

• Time: It determines the thickness of soil layers.

• Relief: It affects soil accumulation and erosion.

• Biological Factors: Plants, animals, and microorganisms significantly affect soil formation by breaking down parent material.

• Soil Composition: 45% Minerals, 25% Air, 25% Water, and 5% Organic Matter.

icar (Indian Council of Agricultural Research)

• This institute has categorized Indian soils into 8 types.

H.Q: New Delhi

• Soil can be divided into certain types on the basis of factors responsible for soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, chemical, and physical properties.

Image summary: A diagram of a soil horizon showing a cross-section of Earth's layers from the surface to the base. The layers consist of the Organic Layer (humus), Topsoil (minerals with humus), Eluviation Layer (leached materials), Subsoil (accumulation layer), Parent Rock (partly weathered), and Bedrock (unweathered). The diagram illustrates the vertical stratification of soil components and their progression from organic matter at the surface to solid rock at the bottom.

Colluvium Soil: It is loose, unconsolidated sediments that have been deposited at the base of hillslopes.

{Types of Soil in India}

Alluvial Soil (40%)

• Alluvial soil is the most widely spread soil in India.

• It is found in the Northern Plains (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam) and Deltas of Peninsular rivers.

• It is formed due to deposition of three important Himalayan river system: Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra.

• Alluvial soil is found in eastern coastal plains to Deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri.

• It is rich in potash and poor in phosphorus.

Image summary: A close-up photograph of brown, textured soil. It is a descriptive image of earth, with no data or analytical result to report.

• Sand content decreases from west to east of the plains.

{Types}

• Old alluvium: Bhangar arrow Calcareous concentration; poor in humus and nitrogen (less fertile).

• New alluvium: Khadar to More suitable for agriculture (more fertile). Its colour varies from light grey to ash grey.

Red Soil (18%) and Yellow Soil

• It is formed due to weathering of metamorphic rock.

• It is red due to presence of iron oxide in the soil.

Image summary: A photo of a textured, reddish-brown surface with undulating vertical and diagonal grain patterns, regardless of orientation. It is a close-up image of a material surface, with no data or analytical result to report.

• It develops on crystalline igneous rocks, especially in areas of low rainfall such as Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Piedmont zone of Western Ghats.

• It turns yellow when it becomes hydrated (iron oxide that gives it its red color changes form to a hydrated state, appearing yellowish).

Black Soil (15%)

• Black soil is also known as 'Regur'.

• It is ideal for cotton cultivation (Cotton requires 210 frost free days).

• Black soil is formed due to eruption of Lava.

Image summary: A low-resolution, dark, grainy image with an irregular texture. It is a visual sample with no labels, data, or analytical results to report.

• It is found in Northwestern part of Peninsular Plateau (also known as Deccan Traps) to Maharashtra and Gujarat.

• It is clayey in nature (made of extremely fine materials).

• This soil has self-ploughing characteristics (It develops cracks when dry and becomes sticky when moist). The soil is also impermeable in nature (water does not percolate easily).

• It is rich in iron, calcium carbonate, magnesium, potassium, lime, alumina and poor in humus, nitrogen

and phosphate.

Laterite Soil (4.3%)

*Almost all Indian soils are poor in Humus and Nitrogen.

• The name is derived from Latin word 'later' which means 'brick'.

- Laterite soil is also considered as deep Red Soil.

• These are slightly acidic in nature, hence possesses very little fertility.

• It is formed as a result of intense leaching process (where important mineral such as silica washes away with the water).

• This type of soil is found in regions of high temperature and heavy rainfall such as Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,

Image summary: A photograph showing a close-up view of reddish-brown, coarse soil or clay composed of small clumps and granular particles. This is a documentary image showing the texture and color of a soil sample.

• Leaching: Leaching is a process where all important minerals of soil wash away or percolate underground.

Madhya Pradesh, and hilly areas of Odisha and Assam.

• Red laterite soil is found in: Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala to these regions are suitable for growing cashew nut crops.

• Laterite soil is also suitable for growing tea and coffee (Karnataka).

Laterization: This happens because intense rainfall leaches away soluble minerals like silica, calcium, and magnesium, leaving behind a concentration of iron and aluminum oxides.

Podsolization: It is a soil formation process that occurs in cool, humid climates, particularly under coniferous forests. It involves acidic water leaching (eluviation) of nutrients, iron, and aluminum from the topsoil, leaving behind a bleached, ash-like layer.

Arid Soil

• Arid soil ranges from red to brown in colour.

• It is generally sandy in texture and saline in nature (rate of evaporation is greater than the rate of precipitation).

Image summary: A photograph of parched, cracked earth. Despite the caption mentioning macronutrients and micronutrients required for soil, the image depicts a dry, barren landscape with deep fissures, illustrating severely nutrient-depleted or dehydrated soil conditions.

• Arid soil is found in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

• The Kankar layer formation in bottom horizon restricts the infiltration of water.

Marshy/Peaty Soil

• Marshy/Peaty soil is primarily found in coastal areas of West Bengal, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu.

• Saline soil is treated with Gypsum.

Acidic soil is treated with Lime.

• It develops in waterlogged areas with high organic matter accumulation due to decaying vegetation.

• It is also seen in regions of high humidity and high rainfall.

Alkaline Soil (also called Usar Soil)

: Image summary: A photo showing a close-up of coarse, rocky, and uneven soil. Given the provided caption, the image depicts the physical state of soil in the context of its macronutrient and micronutrient requirements.

• Alkaline soil is soil with a pH above 7, often rich in calcium, magnesium, and sodium, which can limit nutrient availability for many plants.

Poor water infiltration because of which water stagnates on the surface.

• Fertility: Low fertility because nutrients like iron, zinc, and phosphorus become unavailable to plants.

• Distribution in India: Common in arid and semi-arid regions like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan.

• Crops Grown: Hardy crops like barley, cotton, and certain pulses can survive.

Montane Soil

• Montane soil is found in mountainous region.

Loess is a type of soil that consists of silt and dust.

• This type of soil is more acidic, with decreased mineral nutrients.

• Montane soil is rich in organic matter (has high humus content).

Desert Soil

• Desert soil is dry, sandy and low in organic matter.

• It is seen in extremely arid, low rainfall areas (rainfall: less than 50 centimeters) to Western Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana.

Table: Columns: Macronutrients, Micronutrients. Row 1. Macronutrients: Nitrogen (N). Micronutrients: Chlorine (Cl). Row 2. Macronutrients: Phosphorous (P). Micronutrients: Iron (Fe). Row 3. Macronutrients: Potassium (K). Micronutrients: Boron (B). Row 4. Macronutrients: Sulfur (S). Micronutrients: Manganese (Mn). Row 5. Macronutrients: Calcium (Ca). Micronutrients: Zinc (Zn). Row 6. Macronutrients: Magnesium (Mg). Micronutrients: Copper (Cu). Row 7. Micronutrients: Molybdenum (Mo).

U.S.D.A (United States Department of Agriculture) Soil Classification System

• Entisol: Weakly developed soil with no horizon.

• Inceptisol: Recently formed soil that has weakly or quickly developed horizons. It covers the largest geographical area of India.

• Vertisol: Vertisols are clay-rich soil and tend to swell when wet and shrink upon drying. They are also called inverted soils because the name comes from the Latin word vertere, which means "to invert". Eg. Black soil.

• Alfisol: Alfisols are a type of soil that are rich in clay and minerals and are found in humid and semi-arid regions.

• Oxisol: Oxisols are highly weathered soils that are mainly found in tropical and subtropical regions.

• Gelisol: Gelisols are soils that contain permafrost within 2m of the soil surface.

• Histosol: Histosols are soils that are made up mostly of organic matter, like peat and muck. They are found in wetlands, like swamps.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

Soil Erosion

• The denudation of soil cover and subsequent washing down is described as soil erosion.

Soil Erosion due to Water

Sheet Erosion

• When top soil gets washed away due to heavy shower.

Gully Erosion

• It is a permanent process when surface water run-offs cuts deeply into soil, removing it along drainage lines.

Soil Conservation Methods

• Contour Bunding/Ploughing:

A land management practice for marginal, sloping and hilly land where the soil productivity is very low. It involves placement of the lines of stone along the natural rises of a landscape.

Image summary: A photograph showing a series of terraced agricultural fields on a hillside. The image depicts the physical landscape of farmland, providing a visual context for soil-based cultivation rather than presenting data on macronutrients or micronutrients.

• Mulching: The process of covering the top soil, with plant material, such as leaves, grass, crop residue, etcetera

• Shelter Belts: It involves planting rows of trees on one side of an area that prevents the wind from eroding the soil.

• Terrace Farming: It is the practice of cutting flat areas out of a hilly or mountainous landscape in order to grow crops. Mostly practised in hilly regions, such as Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and certain North-Eastern provinces.

• Strip Farming: It is a type of farming that involves dividing fields into long, narrow strips, and alternating crops in a rotation system.

Image summary: A photo showing rows of green crops planted in a field, interspersed with paths of dry, golden straw or mulch. This is a photograph of an agricultural setting, with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A photograph showing a line of golden-yellow autumn trees bordering a green field with a dirt path cutting through the foreground. It is a landscape image with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A landscape photo showing terraced fields curving along the slopes of green hills, with a small hut in the lower right foreground. It is a descriptive image of agricultural terracing, with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A photograph showing long, alternating strips of green and yellow crops stretching toward a distant horizon. The image depicts a field utilizing strip cropping, a method used to reduce soil erosion and improve crop diversity.

Types of Farming

Agriculture

1. {Primitive Subsistence Farming}

• It is practised on small patches of land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao, digging sticks, and family/community labour.

• This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of soil, and suitability of other environmental conditions.

• It is also known as “slash and burn agriculture” or “Shifting cultivation”.

Shifting Cultivation

• This type of cultivation is not good for the environment as it causes air pollution, deforestation, and the soil loses its productivity.

Different Names across the World

• Indonesia: Ladang.

• Mexico: Milpa.

Sri Lanka: Chena.

Different Names across India

• North-East: Jhum.

Western Ghats: Kumari.

Odisha: Pama Dabi/Bringa.

• Vietnam: Ray.

• Brazil: Roca.

• Venezuela: Conuco.

• Andhra Pradesh: Penda/Podu.

• Chhattisgarh (Bastar district) and Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Dipa.

• Rajasthan: Waltre.

Jharkhand: Kuruwa

• Madhya Pradesh: Bewar/Dahiya.

2. Intensive Subsistence Farming

• It is practised in areas with high population pressure on land.

• It is labour intensive farming where there is a use of high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation to obtain higher production.

• Through “Right of Inheritance”, division of land among successive generation has rendered land-holding uneconomical in size.

3. Commercial Farming

• Crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in market.

• Truck Farming: Regions where farmers specialize in vegetables only.

• There is a usage of higher doses of modern inputs such as High Yielding Variety (H.Y.V) seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides, etcetera, to obtain high productivity.

• Plantation Farming: It involves farming on large areas of land to maximize output and profits to Important crops grown: Tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana, etcetera

Mixed Farming: It involves growing crops and raising livestock on the same farm. This type of farming can help farmers generate stable income.

Mixed Cropping vs Intercropping

Table: Columns: Mixed Cropping, Intercropping. Row 1. Mixed Cropping: Mixed cropping is when two or more crops are grown on a same piece of land without following any particular pattern. Intercropping: Intercropping is when two or more crops are grown on a same piece of land following a specific pattern. Row 2. Mixed Cropping: Seeds of two different crops are mixed before sowing. Intercropping: Seeds are not mixed and grown in a row format. Row 3. Mixed Cropping: This minimize the risk of crop failure. Intercropping: This increases the productivity of land.

Zero tillage farming: A sustainable agricultural technique that plants crop directly into residue from previous crops without disturbing the soil through plowing or tilling, primarily practiced for wheat cultivation in India.

Hydroponics: It is a method of growing plants without soil, using water-based mineral nutrient solutions to deliver nutrients directly to the roots.

Different Cropping Seasons

Table: Columns: Kharif, Rabi, Zaid. Row 1. Kharif: Sowing: July Harvesting: Sept-Oct Kharif crops are also known as Monsoon crops. Eg. Rice, millets, sugarcane, jute, cotton, tobacco, maize, soybean, groundnut, etcetera. Rabi: Sowing: October Harvesting: April Winter rainfall is beneficial for such crops. Eg. Wheat, barley, gram, mustard, linseed, pea, rapeseed, castor, etcetera. Zaid: Short cropping season. Between May and June Eg. Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, fodder crops, etcetera.

Some Major Crops

Rice • India's most consumed staple crops: Rice and Wheat

• Rice is also known as paddy before processing.

• India is the 2nd largest producer of rice after China.

• It is sowed in swampy areas to Methane and other gases are emitted from flooded rice fields by bacteria.

• It requires: High-temperature ( greater than 25 degrees Celsius) and high rainfall ( greater than 100 centimeters).

• In Eastern India, particularly in West Bengal, the three seasons for growing rice are: Aus (July-Aug), Aman (Dec-Jan), and Boro (March-May).

Wheat

• Rain required: 50 to 70 centimeters.

• Sown in well Drained Loamy or Clay loam soils.

• Temperature required while sowing wheat is 10 degrees Celsius to 15 degrees Celsius.

• During ripening, it requires a warmer temperature: 21 degrees Celsius to 26 degrees Celsius.

Winter Rainfall is helpful to wheat farming.

Sugarcane

• Temperature required: 21 to 27 degrees Celsius.

• Rain required: 75 to 100 centimeters.

• Best Yield in fertile, well drained loamy or alluvial soil.

• F.R.P: Fair and Remunerative Price, similar to M.S.P but only for Sugarcane.

Tea

• Tea is grown in acidic, fertile, well-drained soil (laterite soil) with high organic matter that is rich in humus.

• Tea plants grow well in the shade.

• Topmost producer: China greater than India greater than Kenya.

Topmost producer (India): Assam.

Leguminous Crops

• India is largest consumer/producer of leguminous crops.

• Leguminous plants have Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria (Rhizobium) that reside in the roots (symbiotic relationship) of these plants (they convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia which the plant can use as nutrients).

• Eg. Pulses, rajma (no nitrogen fixing bacteria are present in the roots of rajma plants), soyabeans (Top producer: Madhya Pradesh), etcetera

Millets

• Millets are also known as Superfoods/Sri Anna.

Topmost producer: Rajasthan.

• Eg. Bajra, ragi (finger millets), jowar (Sorghum), etcetera

Oil Seeds

• India is 2nd largest producer of oil seeds after China.

• Topmost producer (India): Gujarat.

• Eg. Groundnut, coconut, mustard, sesame, cotton seed, soyabean, etcetera

Horticulture Crops

• Horticultural crops are plants that are grown for food, medicine, aroma, or aesthetics. They include fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and more.

• India produces 13% of world's vegetables.

• It is associated with Golden Revolution.

Coffee

- Blossom showers help in growth of coffee.

• Soil required: Laterite.

• Coffee bowl of the world: Brazil (topmost producer).

• India (topmost producer): Karnataka (Baba Budan Hills).

• According to 2008 data: India produces 3.2% of the world's coffee.

• Coffee is grown in the Western Ghats of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and the North East states.

• Few widely used varieties of coffee plant: Arabica, Liberica, Robusta.

{Fiber Crops}

1. {Cotton}

Cotton is cultivated on black soil.

• It is a fiber crop and also known as “Silver Fiber”.

• It requires: 210 frost free days and 6 to 8 months to mature.

2. {Jute}

This fiber crop is also called as "Golden Fiber".

• Topmost producer: India (West Bengal).

Topmost exporter: Bangladesh

• Nor-westers are considered beneficial for the growth of jute as they bring heavy rainfall which is crucial for early stages of jute cultivation.

3. {Hemp.}

• It is a fast-growing, annual plant that's cultivated for its strong, durable, and natural bast fibers.

4. {Silk}

• Silk is a natural fiber that comes from the cocoons of silkworms, which are raised in a process called sericulture.

• Silk is an animal fiber, and is one of the strongest natural fibers.

Irrigation and Its Types

• Irrigation is the process of supplying water to land for growing crops, lawns, and plants.

1. Surface Irrigation: It is an ancient and widely used method of watering crops by using gravity to distribute water across the soil surface through overland flow.

2. Sprinkler Irrigation: It is a method of applying water to crops and land by spraying it through a system of pipes, pumps, and nozzles, mimicking natural rainfall.

3. Drip Irrigation: It is a method of watering plants by slowly dripping water onto the soil at the base of the plant.

4. Subsurface Irrigation: It is a method that delivers water directly to a plant's root zone by placing a buried network of pipes or drip lines below the soil surface.

5. Canal Irrigation: It is a method of supplying water to fields through artificial channels, which are fed by sources like rivers or reservoirs.

Image summary: A photograph of a farm field with rows of crops being irrigated by water flowing through channels between the rows. The image depicts a traditional agricultural irrigation method used to water crops across a large plot of land.

Image summary: Two photos showing a crop field. The top image provides a wide view of young plants growing in rows of reddish soil, while the bottom image shows a close-up of a plant base with a drip irrigation pipe running along the soil. The images demonstrate the application of a drip irrigation system for crop cultivation.

Image summary: A photograph showing irrigation sprinklers spraying water over a field of green crops. The image depicts an automated watering system used for agricultural crop maintenance.

Image summary: A photograph showing rows of green crops growing in a field, with a wide strip of dry, brown earth visible on the right side. This image depicts an agricultural field layout.

Carbon sequestration: It is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide to reduce its concentration in the atmosphere and mitigate climate change.

Agricultural Revolution

Different Types of Revolution

Green Revolution

• Green Revolution first began in Mexico and Latin America (from 1940 to 1960).

• The term “Green Revolution” was given by: William S. Gaud.

• Father of Green Revolution (world): Norman Borlaug (U.S.A) to he received Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 for his work in developing High Yielding Varieties (H.Y.V's) of wheat.

• Father of Green Revolution (India): M. S. Swaminathan (received Bharat Ratna in 2024).

Phases of Green Revolution in India

• Green Revolution was introduced in India in two phases.

First Phase

• Time Period: Mid 1960 to 1970.

- The first phase was when the use of High-yielding variety (H.Y.V) seeds was limited to wealthier states like Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu and it was also limited to rice and wheat.

• During the Third Five Year Plan (1961 to 1966): C.A.C.P (Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices), F.C.I (Food Corporation of India) were established in 1965.

• In July 1968, Indira Gandhi released a special stamp called the "Wheat Revolution" to mark the progress of the Green Revolution in India.

• Under P.L-480 Scheme, India used to import H.Y.V seeds of wheat from Mexico, U.S.A before Green Revolution.

- I.R.8 (Miracle Rice): A H.Y.V seed of rice developed by International Rice Research Institute (I.R.R.I) which was introduced in Philippines and India.

• Father of Wheat Revolution: Dr D. S. Athwal.

• He developed a new variety of wheat known as Kaliyansona in 1967.

Second Phase

• Time Period: Mid 1970 to 1980

• The second phase was when H.Y.V technology spread to more states and crops.

• This phase focused on increasing agricultural productivity, food security and on holistic development in agriculture.

• The second phase was successful in increasing food production and reducing the dependence on food imports.

• The headquarters of the Second Green Revolution (S.G.R) cell is located at the I.C.A.R-R.C.E.R (Indian Council of Agricultural Research-Research Complex for Eastern Region) in Patna, Bihar.

Drawbacks of Green Revolution

• Intensive irrigation practices depleted groundwater levels in many regions.

• It significantly contributed to increased soil alkalinity due to the widespread use of chemical fertilizers, particularly nitrogen based ones, which raised the pH level of the soil.

• It led to an increased disparity between farmers with large landowners and wealthier farmers benefiting disproportionately compared to small and marginal farmers.

• It benefited more to farmers who had access to land, capital and technology and it also led to the displacement of tenant cultivators in many cases.

G.M Crops (Genetically Modified Crops)

• These are crops/plants that have had their D.N.A modified using genetic engineering techniques.

Eg. Bt brinjal, Bt cotton.

Table: Columns: Image, Black Revolution, Image, Petroleum. Row 1. Image: Image. Black Revolution: Blue Revolution. Image: Image. Petroleum: Fish. Row 2. Image: Image. Black Revolution: Brown Revolution. Image: Image. Petroleum: Leather. Row 3. Image: Image. Black Revolution: Golden Revolution. Image: Image. Petroleum: Fruit / Honey. Row 4. Image: Image. Black Revolution: Green Revolution. Image: Image. Petroleum: Food Grains. Row 5. Image: Image. Black Revolution: Grey Revolution. Image: Image. Petroleum: Fertilizer. Row 6. Image: Image. Black Revolution: Pink Revolution. Image: Image. Petroleum: Onion. Row 7. Image: Image. Black Revolution: Red Revolution. Image: Image. Petroleum: Meat / Tomato. Row 8. Image: Image. Black Revolution: Silver Revolution. Image: Image. Petroleum: Egg / Poultry. Row 9. Image: Image. Black Revolution: White Revolution. Image: -. Petroleum: Milk / Dairy. Row 10. Image: Image. Black Revolution: Yellow Revolution. Image: Image. Petroleum: Oil Seeds. Row 11. Image: Image. Black Revolution: Evergreen Revolution. Image: Image. Petroleum: Overall Development.

Agriculture revolution in India

Blue Revolution

Father: Hiralal Chaudhuri and Arun Krishnan

• It was a program to increase fish production and aquaculture in a sustainable way.

White Revolution

• White Revolution is also known as “Operation Flood”.

• It was a dairy development program to increase milk production in India.

• Launched in 1970 to led by Amul, a brand owned by Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation (G.C.M.M.F)

• Father: Verghese Kurien (Autobiography: "I Too Had A Dream"; "The Man Who Made Elephant Dance").

Yellow Revolution

Father: Sam Pitroda

• The Yellow Revolution was an agricultural program in India that increased the production of edible oilseeds.

Table: Columns: Types, Culture. Row 1. Types: Vegetable farming. Culture: Horticulture. Row 2. Types: Silk rearing. Culture: Sericulture. Row 3. Types: Bee keeping. Culture: Apiculture. Row 4. Types: Fish farming. Culture: Pisciculture. Row 5. Types: Flower framing. Culture: Floriculture. Row 6. Types: Rearing aquatic plants and animals. Culture: Aquaculture. Row 7. Types: Cultivation of grapevines. Culture: Viticulture/Viniculture. Row 8. Types: Bird farming. Culture: Aviculture.

You might find this interesting but did you know?

Agriculture Census is conducted at an interval of 5 years!

Minerals

• A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and physical properties.

• It is a homogenous naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.

• Minerals are of three types: Metallic, Non-Metallic, and Energy Minerals.

Minerals

Chernobyl disaster took place on 26th April 1986 in Ukraine, Soviet Union.

Table: Columns: Metallic, Non-Metallic, Energy Minerals. Row 1. Metallic: 1. Ferrous (containing iron) Iron ore, manganese, nickel, cobalt, etcetera. Non-Metallic: E.g., Mica, salt, potash, sulphur, granite, limestone, marble, sandstone, etcetera. Energy Minerals: E.g., Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas. Row 2. 2. Non-Ferrous: Copper, lead, tin, bauxite, etcetera. Row 3. 3. Precious: Gold, silver, platinum, etcetera.

Ore: Minerals from which metals can be conveniently and profitably extracted.

• Gangue: The impurities (such as sand, clay, etcetera) present surrounding in the ore.

Distribution of Minerals in India

• Most of the metallic minerals in India are found in the Peninsular Plateau.

• Over 97% of coal reserves are found in the valleys of Damodar, Son, Mahanadi and Godavari.

• Petroleum reserves are located in the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai High that is, off-shore region in the Arabian Sea.

• Most of the major mineral resources occur to the east of a line linking Mangaluru and Kanpur.

: Image summary: A diagram of a geographical region divided into four distinct zones labeled Vindhyan, Gondwana, Cuddapah, and Dharwad. The labels point to specific spatial areas within a diamond-shaped outline, illustrating the distribution of these different geological or regional divisions.

Minerals found in region

• Gondwana: Gold

• Dharwad/Cuddapah: Gold, Iron

• Vindhyan: Non-metallic minerals

Metallic Minerals

Ferrous Minerals

Iron Ore

• Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron up to 70%.

• Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used, but it has a slightly lower iron content than magnetite (50 to 60%).

• In 2018 to 19, almost entire production of iron ore (Approx. 97%) came from the states of Odisha, Chhattisgarh,

Karnataka and Jharkhand.

• Reserve (topmost): Odisha.

• Production: Odisha greater than Chhattisgarh greater than Karnataka.

• More than 72% of Magnetite deposits in India are found in Karnataka.

• Mormugao port is the largest exporter of iron ore.

Image summary: A map of India highlighting four primary iron ore belts. These are the Odisha-Jharkhand Belt in the east, the Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt in the center, the Maharashtra-Goa Belt on the west coast, and the Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmagalur-Tumkur Belt in the south. The map serves to illustrate the geographical distribution of India's main iron ore deposits.

4 Major Iron Ore Belt in India

1. Odisha-Jharkhand Belt

• Jharkhand: Singhbhum (Region: Noamudi and Gua).

• Odisha region: Sundargarh, Mayurbhanj, Jhar.

• Odisha: Badampahar mines.

2. Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt (Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra)

Dalli rajhara, Bailadila (Chhattisgarh).

3. Maharashtra-Goa Belt

• Goa: Mormugao.

4. Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmanglur-Tumkur Belt (Karnataka)

• Mangalore, Kudremukh (Chikmanglur), Baba Budan Hills.

Bellary, Kemangundi, Shivamogga.

Manganese

• Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy.

• It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides, and paints.

• Topmost producer (India): Madhya Pradesh.

• Odisha: Sundargarh deposits.

Non-Ferrous Minerals

{Copper}

First metal to be discovered by humans.

• The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Jhunjhunu and Alwar region in Rajasthan.

• Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.

Aluminium

• Primary ore: Bauxite.

• It is used in aircraft because of its lightweight.

• India's bauxite deposits are mainly found in the

Amankantak plateau, Maikal hills, and the plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni.

• Odisha is the largest producer of Bauxite.

• Panchpatmali deposits in Koraput district are the most important bauxite deposits in Odisha.

• Largest producer of bauxite in the world: Australia.

Precious Metals Gold

• Topmost producer (World): China greater than Australia.

• Topmost producer (India): Karnataka, (Kolar Gold Field, Hutti Gold Field).

• Andhra Pradesh: Ramagiri.

Image summary: A map of India showing the locations of several industrial plants, including Hindalco in Renukoot and Hirakud, Balco in Korba, Nalco in Koraput, Malco in Salem, and Indal in Alupuram. The map depicts the geographic distribution of these aluminum-related facilities across different regions of the country.

• Largest reserves (India): Bihar

Mica

Hornblende is a inosilicate amphibole mineral used in highway construction.

Major Aluminium Production

Non-Metallic Minerals

• It is used in electric and electronic industries due to its excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to high voltage (consists of 4% of Earth's crust).

• Mica deposits are found in northern edge of the Chota Nagpur Plateau.

• Koderma Gaya-Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the leading producer of Mica.

• In Rajasthan, the major Mica producing area is around Ajmer.

• Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh is also an important producer in the country.

Image summary: A map of India highlighting the states of Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, and Jharkhand, accompanied by a table of mica production for 2013-14. Andhra Pradesh has the highest production at 7,626 tonnes, followed by Rajasthan, Bihar, and Jharkhand. The map and table together illustrate that Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of mica among the highlighted states.

Limestone

• It is a sedimentary rock that is found in association with rocks, composed of calcium carbonates, or a mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonates.

• It is a basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for melting iron ore in blast furnace.

Largest Mica Producing States

Diamond

Do you know why diamond sparkles?

• Madhya Pradesh (Panna), is the only state that produces diamond.

Image summary: A hierarchy diagram of energy minerals and sources. Sources of energy are divided into Conventional and Non-Conventional categories. Conventional sources are further split into Commercial sources, such as coal, petroleum, and electricity, and Non-Commercial sources, such as firewood, straw, and dried dung. Non-Conventional sources include bio-energy, solar, tidal, wind, and energy from urban waste. The diagram provides a structured classification of various energy sources based on their commercial nature and conventionality.

Energy Minerals/Sources

Source of Energy

Conventional Sources of Energy

• These are traditionally used energy sources, often non-renewable and derived from fossil fuels. Eg. Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and nuclear fuel (Uranium used in power plants).

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

• These are energy sources that are replenished naturally and can be used continuously without depletion, often referred to as renewable energy sources. Eg. Solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, etcetera

Conventional Sources of Energy

1. {Coal}

• Coal is also known as buried sunshine/black diamond/black gold.

• In India, coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel.

• In India coal occurs in rock series of two main geological ages, namely Gondwana, a little over 200 million years in age and in tertiary deposits which are only about 55 million years old.

• The major resources of Gondwana coal (metallurgical coal) are located in Damodar valley, Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important coalfields.

The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits.

• Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.

• Reserve (topmost): Odisha greater than Jharkhand greater than Chhattisgarh.

• Production (topmost): Chhattisgarh greater than Odisha.

: Map of India showing the locations of major coal mines across several states. The mines are concentrated primarily in the east and central regions, including Bokaro, Jharia, and Raniganj, as well as Korba and Singrauli, with additional sites in Odisha, Telangana, and Tamil Nadu. The image depicts the geographical distribution of coal mining activity across the country.

Types of Coal

• A good coal has: High calorific value, Low moisture content, High carbon content.

• Anthracite: 80 to 90% carbon, Highest quality, Hard coal.

• Bituminous: 70 to 80% carbon; coal that has been buried deep and subjected to high temperatures (also known metallurgical coal/coking coal).

• Lignite: 50 to 70% carbon; a great brown coal which is soft with high moisture content. Neyveli in Tamil Nadu is an important source of Lignite.

• Peat: Less than 50% carbon; decaying plants in swamps produce peat. It has a low carbon and high moisture content and low heating capacity.

• {Major Coal Mines of India:}

Table: Columns: Jharkhand:, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra. Row 1. Jharkhand:: Jharia, Dhanbad Bokaro Jayanti Godda Giridih (Karbhari) Ramgarh Karanpura Daltonganj. Madhya Pradesh: Singrauli Sohagpur Johila Umaria Satpura. Maharashtra: Kamptee (Nagpur) Wun Field Wardha Walarpur Ghughus Warora. Row 2. Jharkhand:: Odisha. Madhya Pradesh: Chhattisgarh. Maharashtra: West Bengal. Row 3. Jharkhand:: Jharsuguda Rampia Talcher Ib Valley. Madhya Pradesh: Korba Bishrampur Sonhat Jhilmil Hasdo-Arand. Maharashtra: Raniganj, Dalingkot (Darjeeling), Birbhum, Chinakuri.

2. Petroleum

• The majority of petroleum deposits in India are found within the rock formations of the Tertiary geological era, trapped in structures like anticlines (upward folds) and fault traps.

• Petroleum is found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas being lighter usually occurs above the oil.

• Mumbai High, Gujarat, and Assam are major petroleum production areas in India.

Image summary: A map of India marking the locations of oil fields with red squares. Fields are clustered in the northeast at Moran-Hugrijan, Digboi, and Naharkatia; in the west at Kalol, Khambat, Ankleshwar, Bassein, and Mumbai High; and in the south at Tatipaka in Andhra Pradesh. The map identifies the primary geographical distribution of oil fields across India.

• Ankleshwar is the most important oil field of Gujarat.

• Assam is the oldest oil producing state of India. Digboi (commissioned in: 1901 and is the 1st refinery of India), Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan are the important oil fields in the state.

3. {Natural Gas}

• Methane (C H 4) is a primary component of natural gas (70 to 90%).

• Natural Gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the surface.

• It is used as fuel in power sector to generate electricity. The majority of India's natural gas reserves are located in the Mumbai High and associated fields along the west coast, with additional reserves being found in the Cambay Basin.

• Along the East Coast, new reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin.

• The first 1,700 kilometers long Hazira (Guj) -Vijaipur (M.P) -Jagdishpur (U.P) (H.V.J pipeline established in 1986) cross country gas pipeline, constructed by Gail (India), linked Mumbai High and Bassein gas fields with various fertilizer, power and industrial complexes in western and northern India.

• Ethyl mercaptan: Its primary use is as an odorant in otherwise odorless gases like natural gas and propane to act as a warning agent for leaks.

4. {Electricity}

• Hydro-energy/Hydroelectricity: Hydroelectricity is a renewable energy source that uses the power of moving water to generate electricity.

Thermal: It uses the power of Coal, Petroleum and Natural Gas to generate electricity. Mundra Thermal Power Plant: Kutch, Gujarat.

5. {Thermal Energy} Power Plant

- Thermal energy power plants, also known as thermal power stations are facilities that convert heat energy, often from burning fossil fuels or nuclear fission, into electrical energy, typically by using steam to drive turbines.

Image summary: A map of India marking the locations of various thermal power plants across the country. Locations are concentrated heavily in the northern and eastern regions, particularly in states bordering Nepal and Bangladesh, with scattered plants extending south toward the coast. The map illustrates the geographic distribution and density of thermal power generation sites throughout India.

Thermal Power Plants of India

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

1. {Nuclear/Atomic Energy}

- Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei.

The fission process often produces gamma photons, and releases a very large amount of energy which is used to generate electric power. Eg. Uranium and Thorium mines, which are available in Jharkhand and

• Apsara: 1st Nuclear Reactor of Asia. It was set up in 1956 in Bombay. It was shut down in 2009.

Father of nuclear

programme: H. J. Bhabha

the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan.

Monazite sand of Kerala is also rich in Thorium.

Function of Moderator, Control Rods, and Coolant in Nuclear Reactors

Moderator

- Moderator slows down the fast-moving neutrons produced during fission, making them more likely to cause further fission events.

Eg. Common moderators include, heavy water (deuterium oxide), and graphite.

Control Rods

• Control rods absorb neutrons, thus regulating the rate of fission and preventing the chain reaction from becoming uncontrolled. Eg. Control rods are typically made of boron, cadmium, silver, etcetera

Coolant

• Coolants remove the heat generated by fission, preventing the reactor core from overheating and allowing the heat to be used to produce steam for electricity generation. Eg. Heavy water, gas like helium or C-O _{2} .

Image summary: A diagram of a nuclear power plant showing the flow of water and steam through several components. Heat from the reactor, regulated by control rods, turns water into steam that drives a turbine connected to an electric generator. The steam is then cooled back into water in a condenser, with the heat carried away by a separate loop of water that is cooled in a cooling tower. The process uses a series of pumps to circulate water, showing how nuclear fission is converted into electrical energy.

Nuclear Power Plants of India

- Tarapur: Maharashtra

(1st nuclear power plant)

commissioned in 1969.

• Kudankulam and

Kalpakkam: Tamil Nadu.

Kaiga: Karnataka.

• Narora: Uttar Pradesh.

Rawatbhata: Rajasthan.

• Kakrapar: Gujarat.

Nuclear Power Plants under operation in India

Image summary: A map of India showing the locations of various atomic power plants across different states. Labeled sites include Rajasthan Atomic Power Plant in Rajasthan, Narora Atomic Power Plant in Uttar Pradesh, Kakrapar Atomic Power Plant in Gujarat, Tarapur Atomic Power Plant in Maharashtra, Kaiga Generating Station in Karnataka, and the Madras and Kudankulam stations in Tamil Nadu. The map's purpose is to illustrate the geographical distribution of nuclear power facilities across the country.

2. {Solar Energy.}

• It is a renewable source of energy.

- Solar energy is the radiant heat and light from the sun that can be harnessed to generate electricity, heat, and other forms of energy.

• Photovoltaic technology is a technology which converts sunlight directly into electricity.

- H.Q of International Solar Alliance: Gurugram.

• Bhadla Solar Park in Rajasthan is the largest.

• P.M-Suryaghar Bijli Yojna: P.M Surya Ghar is a government scheme that provides subsidies for households to install rooftop solar panels, with the goal of offering up to 300 units of free electricity per month to one crore households.

3. Wind Energy.

• It is a renewable source of energy.

• India has a great potential of wind power.

• The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagercoil to Madurai.

4. Tidal Energy

• Ocean tides can be used to generate electricity.

• In India, the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat on the western coast and Gangetic delta in Sunderban regions of West Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.

Tidal Energy

Image summary: A diagram of a tidal energy system showing a barrage separating a high tide area from a low tide area. Water flows from high tide through sluice gates in the barrage to spin a turbine, which then sends electricity to high voltage towers and nearby buildings. The purpose of this system is to generate electrical power using the difference in water levels between high and low tides.

Renewable Vs Non-Renewable Resources

Table: Columns: Renewable Resources, Non-Renewable Resources. Row 1. Renewable Resources: They can be easily recycled. Non-Renewable Resources: They cannot be easily recycled as they take millions of years to form once exhausted. Row 2. Renewable Resources: They are also called as inexhaustible resources. Non-Renewable Resources: They are also called as exhaustible resources. Row 3. Renewable Resources: They are environment friendly and do not release any particles to the atmosphere. Non-Renewable Resources: They are not environment friendly, they release carbon dioxide, methane, and other toxic gases. Row 4. Renewable Resources: They are found abundantly in nature. Non-Renewable Resources: They are scarce in nature.

• Philosopher's stone convert all base metals like iron into gold.

• Approximate amount of silica present in cement is between 17% and 25%.

• Rock forming silicate mineral that constitutes more than 50% of Earth's crust and is used in glass and ceramic industry is Feldspar.

5. {Geothermal Energy} .

• Geothermal energy refers to the heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth.

• Two experimental projects have been set up in India to harness geothermal energy to Parvati valley near Manikarn (Himachal Pradesh) and Puga Valley (Ladakh).

6. {Biomass}

• Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to produce biogas for domestic consumption in rural areas.

• Decomposition of organic matter yields gas, which has higher thermal efficiency in comparison to kerosene, dung cake, and charcoal.

• The plants that utilise cattle dung are known as 'Gobar gas plants' in rural India.

Anaerobic Digestion/Respiration

• In anaerobic digestion/respiration, microorganism breaks down biodegradable material in absence of oxygen.

• Biogas is generated through anaerobic respiration.

Biogas composition

- C-O 2 : 30 to 40 percent

- C H 4: 55 to 70 percent

Major Industrial Regions of India

• Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region.

Hugli Industrial Region.

• Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Industrial Region.

• Gujarat Industrial Region.

• Chotanagpur Industrial Region.

• Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Industrial Region.

• Gurugram-Delhi-Meerut Industrial Region.

• Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Region.

Image summary: A map of India highlighting several shaded industrial regions, including the Gurugram-Delhi-Meerut Belt, Ahmedabad-Vadodara Belt, Hooghly Belt, Chota Nagpur Plateau Region, Mumbai-Pune Belt, Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Belt, Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Belt, and the Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Belt. The map identifies the primary distributed geographic clusters of industrial development across the country.

Table: Row 1: Continents. Row 2: Area wise, Population wise. Row 3: Asia, Asia. Row 4: Africa, Africa. Row 5: North America, Europe. Row 6: South America, North America. Row 7: Antarctica, South America. Row 8: Europe, Australia/Oceania. Row 9: Australia/Oceania, Antarctica.

Top (Area + Population wise): Asia

• 2nd (Area + Population wise): Africa

Major Industrial Regions in India

Southeast Asia

Asia

Image summary: A map of Southeast Asia highlighting various countries including Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, Brunei, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and East Timor. Colored dots are placed within several of these countries, serving to geographically identify the member states of the region.

Table: Columns: Indonesia, to,. Row 1. Indonesia: Malaysia. to: to.:. Row 2. Indonesia: Thailand. to: to.:. Row 3. Indonesia: Vietnam. to: to.:. Row 4. Indonesia: Myanmar. to: to.:. Row 5. Indonesia: Laos. to: to.:. Row 6. Indonesia: Cambodia. to: to.:. Row 7. Indonesia: East Timor. to: to.:. Row 8. Indonesia: Philippines. to: to.:.

Table: Columns: Country, Capital. Row 1. Country: Indonesia. Capital: Nusantara (Old: Jakarta). Row 2. Country: Malaysia. Capital: Kuala Lumpur. Row 3. Country: Thailand. Capital: Bangkok. Row 4. Country: Vietnam. Capital: Hanoi. Row 5. Country: Myanmar (Earlier-Burma). Capital: Naypyidaw. Row 6. Country: Laos. Capital: Vientiane. Row 7. Country: Cambodia. Capital: Phnom Penh. Row 8. Country: East Timor. Capital: Dili. Row 9. Country: Philippines. Capital: Manila.

• Five main islands in Indonesia: Sumatra (largest island of all), Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Java, Papua.

- Most of the islands in Indonesia are volcanic islands.

- Java is the world's most populous island, holding over 156 million people.

Laos: It is a landlocked country (only surrounded by land and no ocean).

Indonesia: It is a country with highest Muslim population around the world.

Straits

• A strait is a narrow passage of water body that connects two large bodies of water or separates two landmasses.

Strait of Malacca: It connects South China Sea (part of Pacific Ocean) and Andaman Sea (part of Indian Ocean) and separates Malaysia and Indonesia.

Sunda Strait: It connects the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean and separates the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java.

East Asia

Image summary: A map of East Asia highlighting China and Mongolia in green, with various nearby regions and territories labeled, including North Korea, South Korea, Japan, the Kuril Islands, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau. The map's purpose is to illustrate the geographic relationship between China, its neighbors, and nearby island territories.

Table: Columns: China, to,. Row 1. China: South Korea. to: to.:. Row 2. China: North Korea. to: to.:. Row 3. China: Japan. to: to.:. Row 4. China: Taiwan. to: to.:. Row 5. China: Yellow Sea. to: to.:. Row 6. China: Kuril Islands. to: to.:. Row 7. China: Mongolia. to: to.:.

Table: Columns: Country, Capital. Row 1. Country: China. Capital: Beijing. Row 2. Country: South Korea. Capital: Seoul. Row 3. Country: North Korea. Capital: Pyongyang. Row 4. Country: Japan. Capital: Tokyo. Row 5. Country: Taiwan (Earlier-Formosa). Capital: Taipei. Row 6. Country: Mongolia. Capital: Ulaanbaatar.

China Official Language: Mandarin

South Korea: It shares border with North Korea.

South and North Korea are separated by 38th Parallel line.

North Korea: It shares borders with China and Russia.

Japan: Japan has 4 major islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu.

• Honshu is the largest and their capital, Tokyo, is also situated on Honshu.

Mongolia: It is a land-locked country.

Yellow Sea: It is located between mainland China and Korean Peninsula.

Kuril Islands: This island is under territorial dispute between Japan and Russia.

Deserts

• Taklamakan-largest desert of China

• Gobi Desert-cold desert (China and Mongolia).

Southwest Asia Turkiye : Currency: Lira.

Image summary: A map of the Middle East and surrounding regions with colored dots marking specific countries, accompanied by a legend that links each country name to a corresponding dot color. The map highlights countries including Turkiye, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, and Azerbaijan, serving as a visual reference to identify these specific nations in the region.

Table: Columns: Saudi Arabia, to,. Row 1. Saudi Arabia: Iraq. to: to.:. Row 2. Saudi Arabia: Yemen. to: to.:. Row 3. Saudi Arabia: Turkiye. to: to.:. Row 4. Saudi Arabia: Azerbaijan. to: to.:. Row 5. Saudi Arabia: Lebanon. to: to.:. Row 6. Saudi Arabia: Jordan. to: to.:. Row 7. Saudi Arabia: Qatar. to: to.:. Row 8. Saudi Arabia: Oman. to: to.:. Row 9. Saudi Arabia: UAE. to: to.:.

Table: Columns: Country, Capital. Row 1. Country: Saudi Arabia. Capital: Riyadh. Row 2. Country: Iraq. Capital: Baghdad. Row 3. Country: Yemen. Capital: Sana'a. Row 4. Country: Turkiye. Capital: Ankara. Row 5. Country: Azerbaijan. Capital: Baku. Row 6. Country: Lebanon. Capital: Beirut. Row 7. Country: Jordan. Capital: Amman. Row 8. Country: Qatar. Capital: Doha (Ad Dawhah). Row 9. Country: Oman. Capital: Mascat. Row 10. Country: United Arab Emirates. Capital: Abu Dhabi.

• It is a transcontinental country, as it's spread between two continents: Asia and Europe.

Iraq : Old name of Iraq: Mesopotamia.

• It is referred to as “the land between two rivers” to Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

Mountains

• The Caucasus Mountains lie between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea and act as a natural boundary between Europe and Asia.

• The Taurus Mountains are located in southern Turkey, just north of Syria, along the Mediterranean coast.

Central Asia

Image summary: A map of Central Asia highlighting Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan in green, with colored dots marking specific locations within these countries. The map serves to geographically pinpoint particular sites across these five nations.

Image summary: A list of five Central Asian countries—Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan—each paired with a colored dot. Turkmenistan has a blue dot, Kazakhstan has an orange dot, and the remaining three have red dots. The image serves as a legend or key to identify these countries by color.

Table: Columns: Country, Capital. Row 1. Country: Turkmenistan. Capital: Ashgabat. Row 2. Country: Uzbekistan. Capital: Tashkent. Row 3. Country: Kazakhstan. Capital: Astana. Row 4. Country: Kyrgyzstan. Capital: Bishkek. Row 5. Country: Tajikistan. Capital: Dushanbe.

*Liechtenstein and Uzbekistan are the only doubly landlocked countries (countries that are surrounded by landlocked countries).

South Asia

: Image summary: A map of South Asia and surrounding regions, with countries including Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives highlighted in green. Various colored dots are placed across these nations. The purpose of the image is to geographically identify these specific countries in the region.

Table: Columns: Iran, to,. Row 1. Iran: India. to: to.:. Row 2. Iran: Pakistan. to: to.:. Row 3. Iran: Afghanistan. to: to.:. Row 4. Iran: Nepal. to: to.:. Row 5. Iran: Bangladesh. to: to.:. Row 6. Iran: Bhutan. to: to.:. Row 7. Iran: Sri Lanka. to: to.:. Row 8. Iran: Maldives. to: to.:.

Table: Columns: Country, Capital. Row 1. Country: Iran (Old: Persia). Capital: Tehran. Row 2. Country: India. Capital: New Delhi. Row 3. Country: Pakistan. Capital: Islamabad. Row 4. Country: Afghanistan. Capital: Kabul. Row 5. Country: Nepal. Capital: Kathmandu. Row 6. Country: Bangladesh. Capital: Dhaka. Row 7. Country: Bhutan. Capital: Thimphu. Row 8. Country: Sri Lanka. Capital: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, Colombo. Row 9. Country: Maldives. Capital: Male.

Sri Lanka: Capital: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (Legislative capital) and Colombo (Judicial capital).

Straits

Kech Strait: It connects the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov and separates Kech (in Ukraine) and Russia.

Bosphorous Strait: It connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara.

Strait of Hormuz: It connects the Persian Gulf (west) to the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea (in the southeast).

Bab-al-Mandab Strait: This strait is also known as Gateway of Grief or the Gate of Tears.

Image summary: A map showing the Bosporus Strait, which separates Europe to the west from Asia to the east in Turkey. The strait connects the Black Sea to the north and the Sea of Marmara to the south, with the city of Istanbul spanning both continents. The map illustrates the strategic geographic position of Istanbul as a bridge between Europe and Asia.

Image summary: A map of the Middle East highlighting Iran in white and circling the Strait of Hormuz between Oman and Iran. A red text box identifies the Strait of Hormuz as a key route for global oil transport, illustrating the strategic geographical importance of this waterway.

• It connects the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden.

Palk Strait: It connects the Bay of Bengal to Gulf of Mannar and separates India and Sri Lanka.

$ \underline{\text{Maldives}} $: Official language: Dhivehi.

Sea

Caspian Sea: It is surrounded by five countries

(Trick: Tarik)

• Caspian Sea is a lake and is a landlocked water body of Europe and Asia.

• Rivers Volga, Ural, and Terek discharge themselves into the Caspian Sea.

Black Sea: It is bordered by six countries Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkiye, and Ukraine.

(Trick: The Burgur).

The Bu R G U R

Turkiye Bulgaria Russia Georgia Ukraine Romania

• Rivers Danube, Dnieper, and Dniester discharge themselves into the Black Sea.

Red Sea: It is bordered by six countries Djibouti, Eritrea, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Egypt, Yemen (Trick: Dessey).

D E S S E Y

Djibouti Eritrea Saudi Arabia Sudan Egypt Yemen

Dead Sea: It is a salt water lake with highest salinity in the world.

• It is bordered by two main countries: Jordan and Israel.

Iran

Kazakhstan

Trans-Siberian Rail Link

• It is world's longest rail link with the length of 9289 kilometers or 5772 miles.

• It connects Vladivostok and Moscow.

Image summary: A map of Russia and surrounding regions showing a red line connecting Siberia in the west to Vladivostok in the east. The map highlights Russia's vast geography and its position between Europe and Asia, illustrating the immense distance across the country from Siberia to the Pacific coast.

Table: Columns: Country, Capital. Row 1. Country: Russia. Capital: Moscow. Row 2. Country: Ukraine. Capital: Kyiv.

Trans-Siberian Link between Moscow and Vladivostok

Russia: It is a trans-continental country.

Canals

• It is an artificial waterway constructed to allow the passage of boats or ships inland or to convey water for irrigation.

Suez Canal: It connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.

Image summary: Two maps side-by-side showing the Suez Canal. The left panel provides a detailed view of the canal stretching through Egypt from the Mediterranean Sea to the Gulf of Suez. The right panel places the canal within the broader context of the Middle East, showing its location relative to Egypt, Israel, the Red Sea, and surrounding countries. Together, they illustrate the canal's geographic position as a critical maritime link between the Mediterranean and Red Seas.

Straits, Canal, and Sea

Africa

• It is known as “Continent of Continents”, “Dark Continent”, and “Black Continent”.

• It is the only continent from where all three important latitudes pass (Equator, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn).

Image summary: A political map of Africa identifying countries, major cities, geographic features like the Sahara Desert and Great Rift Valley, and surrounding bodies of water such as the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The map serves to illustrate the territorial boundaries and geographic layout of the African continent.

Table: Columns: Country, Capital. Row 1. Country: Ethiopia (Old- Abyssinia). Capital: Addis Ababa. Row 2. Country: Malawi (Old- Nyasaland). Capital: Lilongwe. Row 3. Country: Zimbabwe. Capital: Harare. Row 4. Country: Egypt. Capital: Cairo. Row 5. Country: Zambia. Capital: Lusaka. Row 6. Country: South Africa. Capital: Cape Town, Pretoria, Bolemfontein.

Egypt: It is a transcontinental country.

South Africa

• Cape Town (legislative capital).

• Pretoria (administrative capital).

• Bloemfontein (judicial capital).

• Johannesburg is famous for its vast gold deposits.

Kimberley is world-renowned for diamonds.

• Lesotho and Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) are independent, landlocked nations located within South Africa.

Table: Columns: Strait of Gibraltar, to. Row 1. Strait of Gibraltar: Atlas Mountain. to: to. Row 2. Strait of Gibraltar: Namib desert. to: to. Row 3. Strait of Gibraltar: Kalahari Desert. to: to. Row 4. Strait of Gibraltar: Benguela Current. to: to. Row 5. Strait of Gibraltar: Canary Current. to: to. Row 6. Strait of Gibraltar: Great Rift Valley. to: to. Row 7. Strait of Gibraltar: Lake Turkana. to: to. Row 8. Strait of Gibraltar: Lake Victoria. to: to. Row 9. Strait of Gibraltar: Madagascar. to: to. Row 10. Strait of Gibraltar: Egypt. to: to.

Zimbabwe and Zambia were previously known as Rhodesia.

Mountain Ranges and Peaks

Atlas: It is a series of mountain ranges located in Northern Africa.

Mount Kilimanjaro: It is a dormant volcano and the highest peak of Africa (in Tanzania, capital: Dodoma).

Drakenberg Mountains: These are old fold mountains (highest mountain in South Africa).

Deserts

Sahara Desert: It is world's largest hot desert spanning across North Africa.

Kalahari Desert: It is located in Southern Africa covering Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa.

Namib Desert: It is located in west coast of Southern Africa covering Namibia, Angola, and South Africa.

Great Rift Valley

• The Great Rift Valley is a series of continuous geographical trench that features the deepest lakes and highest mountains.

• It is one of the most extensive rifts on the Earth's surface that runs along the part of East Africa.

• Lake Malawi (Lake Nyasa) is part of it.

Rivers

Nile River: It is the longest river of the world.

• It is formed from Blue Nile (origin: Lake Tana in Ethiopia) and White Nile (origin: Lake Victoria of Tanzania.

• The Nile river empties at Mediterranean Sea.

Image summary: A map of Northeast Africa showing the Nile River system, tracing its path from Lake Victoria in Uganda northward through South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt to the Mediterranean Sea. It depicts the convergence of the White Nile River and the Blue Nile River in Sudan. The map's purpose is to illustrate the geography and course of the Nile River across these countries.

Congo River: It cuts the equator twice.

• The Congo river basin is also known as Zaire basin.

• The Pygmy tribe is associated with the Congo basin.

Orange River: South Africa's longest river.

River Nile

Straits

The Strait of Gibraltar: Connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea, separates Europe (Spain) from Africa (Morocco).

Furnace Creek Ranch, Death Valley, California, U.S.A, has recorded the highest temperature in the world.

Northamerica

Alaska: It was earlier a part of Russia. In 1867, Russia sold Alaska to the United States for 7.2 million. Now it's part of the U.S.A.

Image summary: A map of North America depicting the continent and surrounding regions, including Canada, the United States, Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and Greenland. It labels key geographic features such as the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Arctic Circle, and the 49th Parallel Line. The purpose of the figure is to provide a geographic overview of the North American continent and its bordering territories.

Table: Columns: The Great Lakes, to,. Row 1. The Great Lakes: Bering Strait. to: to.:. Row 2. The Great Lakes: Panama Canal. to: to.:. Row 3. The Great Lakes: 49th Parallel Line. to: to.:. Row 4. The Great Lakes: Alaska. to: to.:. Row 5. The Great Lakes: Greenland. to: to.:.

49th Parallel Line: It is a boundary between USA and Canada.

• The Bermuda Triangle, located in the Atlantic Ocean, roughly bounded by Miami, Bermuda, and Puerto Rico. • The Colorado plateau and the Great Salt Lake is located in the western part of the United States.

Canals and Straits

Panama Canal: Panama Canal links North America to South America and separates the Atlantic Ocean from the Pacific Ocean.

Bering Strait: Bering strait connects Arctic Ocean to Pacific Ocean and separates Asia and North America.

Mountains

Rocky Mountains: They are also known as Rockies. They are the largest and major mountain range in North America.

• Highest peak Mount Elbert.

• They are young fold mountains.

Appalachian Mountains: They are among the oldest mountain ranges on Earth.

• Highest peak Mount Mitchell.

• They are old fold mountains.

• Great Basin

Mojave Desert

Canada

Deserts

Sonoran Desert

Chihuahuan Desert

• Canadas has the most no. of natural lakes in the world.

H: Lake Huron

O: Lake Ontario

- M: Lake Michigan

- Lake Erie

- S: Lake Superior (world's largest freshwater lake)

These lakes are known as “The Great Lakes” and are shared by both U.S.A and Canada.

;// Image summary: A map of the United States divided into various physiographic regions, such as the Pacific Mountain System, Intermontane Plateaus, Great Plains, and Appalachian Highlands. Three specific regions—the Rocky Mountain System, Appalachian Highlands, and Great Lakes—are highlighted with colored dots. The purpose of the map is to show the distribution of the major physical and geological regions across the United States.

Image summary: A map of South America highlighting the Andes Mountain Range as a red band running along the western coast. Specific locations are marked with colored dots, including Mt. Aconcaqgua in blue and Ojas del Salado in black, both located in the southern region of the range. The map illustrates the geographic extent of the Andes across several countries and the location of its prominent peaks.

Table: Columns: Country, Capital. Row 1. Country: Chile. Capital: Santiago. Row 2. Country: Argentina. Capital: Buenos Aires. Row 3. Country: Paraguay. Capital: Asuncion. Row 4. Country: Bolivia. Capital: Sucre. Row 5. Country: Uruguay. Capital: Montevideo. Row 6. Country: Brazil. Capital: Brasilia. Row 7. Country: Venezuela. Capital: Caracas.

• It is the largest country of South America.

South America has only two landlocked countries: Bolivia and Paraguay.

Brazil: Currency: Brazilian Real.

Mountains

Ojas del Salado: It is the highest mountain (dormant complex volcano) in the Andes range on Argentina-Chile border.

Mount Cotopaxi: It is located in the Andes mountains of Ecuador.

Andes Mountain Range: It is the longest chain of mountain range on land that runs along the western coast of South America. It is a young fold mountain range.

• It passes through seven countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.

Mount Cotopaxi and Mount Chimborazo are two active volcanoes located in Ecuador.

Atacama Desert: It is the driest desert located in Northern Chile bordered by Pacific Ocean (west) and Andes Mountains (east).

Patagonian Desert: It is located in Argentina.

{Lakes}

Lake Titicaca: It is the world's highest navigable lake, situated in the Andes mountains on the border of Peru and Bolivia.

Lake Maracaibo: It is located in Venezuela (South America's largest lake). It is also one of the world's oldest (formed 36 million years ago), that's why it's rich in oil and gas resources and is known as the "oil lake".

Rivers and Islands

Amazon River: It is the world's largest river by volume and second-longest river, originates from Peru, flows through Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, and mainly Brazil before emptying into the Atlantic Ocean.

Galapagos Island: It is part of Ecuador, located in the Pacific Ocean approximately 600 miles away in the west, from Ecuador's coast.

The Lithium Triangle is a region of the Andes that is rich in lithium reserves, encompassed by the borders of Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile.

Europe

: Image summary: A map of Europe labeled "SOUTH AMERICA," depicting various countries in different colors with several colored dots marking locations in Russia, Germany, the English Channel, and near Greece. The map also highlights the Alps Mountain Range with a black oval. The contradictory caption and incorrect geographical markers make this a non-factual or illustrative diagram rather than an accurate map.

Image summary: A map of South America highlighting the Lithium Triangle, a region spanning parts of Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. The map indicates selected salt flats from 2017, such as Uyuni in Bolivia and Atacama in Chile, as the primary areas for lithium mining. The takeaway is that lithium resources are concentrated within this specific cross-border high-altitude region.

Table: Columns: Germany, to. Row 1. Germany: Russia. to: to. Row 2. Germany: Alps Mountain Range. to: to. Row 3. Germany: Cyprus. to: to. Row 4. Germany: English Channel. to: to. Row 5. Germany: Iceland. to: to. Row 6. Germany: Denmark. to: to. Row 7. Germany: Switzerland. to: to. Row 8. Germany: Austria. to: to.

Russia: Russia is considered a part of both Europe and Asia.

Greenland: It is the world's largest island, located in the North Atlantic Ocean, and it is an autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark.

Iceland: It is the largest volcanic island located in the North Atlantic Ocean.

Do you know the difference between Britain and the United Kingdom?

• Great Britain (Britain) to Island consists of England plus Scotland plus Wales

• United Kingdom (U.K) to Political country consists of England + Scotland + Wales + Northern Ireland

• So, the United Kingdom = Great Britain + Northern Ireland.

• Switzerland and Austria are landlocked countries.

Balkan Nations: It refers to the countries located on the Balkan Peninsula in southeastern Europe.

Mountain Ranges

Ural Mountain Ranges: It separates Europe and Asia and is an old fold mountain range.

Alps Mountain Range: The Alps are the highest mountain range in Europe and are young fold mountains.

Scandinavian Countries and Nordic Countries

Image summary: A map of Northern Europe and Scandinavia, with colored dots marking locations in Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Finland. The map includes labels for surrounding seas and neighboring countries, illustrating the geographic distribution of these specific points across the region.

Table: Columns: Iceland, to. Row 1. Iceland: Norway. to: to. Row 2. Iceland: Sweden. to: to. Row 3. Iceland: Denmark. to: to. Row 4. Iceland: Finland. to: to. Row 5. Iceland: Hinderburg Line. to: to.

• Scandinavian countries: Norway, Sweden, Denmark

• Nordic countries: Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland

Hidenburg Line: It is a line between Germany and Poland (German defensive line in French territory during World War 1).

Table: Columns: Some famous countries of Europe, Capitals. Row 1. Some famous countries of Europe: Norway (Land of Midnight Sun). Capitals: Oslo. Row 2. Some famous countries of Europe: Sweden. Capitals: Stockholm. Row 3. Some famous countries of Europe: Finland. Capitals: Helsinki. Row 4. Some famous countries of Europe: Denmark. Capitals: Copenhagen. Row 5. Some famous countries of Europe: Germany. Capitals: Berlin. Row 6. Some famous countries of Europe: Belgium. Capitals: Brussels. Row 7. Some famous countries of Europe: Poland. Capitals: Warsaw. Row 8. Some famous countries of Europe: France. Capitals: Paris. Row 9. Some famous countries of Europe: Spain. Capitals: Madrid. Row 10. Some famous countries of Europe: Portugal. Capitals: Lisbon.

Table: Columns: Italy, Rome. Row 1. Italy: Greece. Rome: Athens (World's first Olympic games were held in 1896). Row 2. Italy: Romania. Rome: Bucharest. Row 3. Italy: Hungary. Rome: Budapest. Row 4. Italy: Bulgaria. Rome: Sofia. Row 5. Italy: Czech Republic. Rome: Prague. Row 6. Italy: Austria. Rome: Vienna. Row 7. Italy: Switzerland. Rome: Bern.

Vatican City- Smallest country in the world.

Oceania

Image summary: A map of the Pacific Ocean dividing the region into three large, colored areas: Micronesia in purple, Melanesia in green, and Polynesia in yellow. The map labels various island nations and geographic markers, such as the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer, to show the spatial distribution of these cultural and geographic regions across the North and South Pacific Oceans.

Table: Columns: Melanesia,. Row 1. Melanesia: Polynesia.:. Row 2. Melanesia: Micronesia.:. Row 3. Melanesia: Great Barrier Reef.:. Row 4. Melanesia: Great Australian.:. Row 5. Melanesia: Desert. Row 6. Melanesia: Bass Straight.:.

• Oceania is made up of Micronesia, Polynesia, and Melanesia, in addition to Australasia, which includes Australia and New Zealand.

• Puncak Jaya (also known as Carstensz Pyramid) is the tallest mountain in Oceania. (4884 m) (Located in Papua New Guinea).

Melanesia: Largest island in Melanesia: New Guinea (capital - Port Moresby).

• Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz, Fiji - are parts of Melanesia. (Capital of Fiji - Suva).

Micronesia: Marshall Islands and Kiribati are parts of Micronesia.

Polynesia: Samoa, Tonga, Hawaii, Easter Island, Cook Islands and New Zealand are parts of Polynesia (Hawaii Islands are parts of the U.S.A, while Easter island is part of Chile (South America).

Rivers

• The longest river of Australia is Murray.

• Darling River is Australia's other important river.

Bass Strait

Straits

• It separates Tasmania from Victoria in Australia.

Great Barrier Reef

• It is the world's largest barrier reef located in North Eastern coast of Australia.

• It is also the world's largest coral reef system.

Great Australian Desert: The Great Australian Desert covers central and western

Australia.

• It is made up of several interconnected deserts, making it the largest in Australia.

• Some major deserts are: Victoria Desert, Great Sandy Desert, Tanami Desert, Simpson Desert, Gibson Desert.

Islands

• Stewart island and Cook islands are parts of New Zealand.

King island is part of Australia.

• Capital of Australia-Canberra

• Capital of New Zealand-Wellington (located in North Island)

• Capital of Fiji-Suva

Antarctica and Arctic

Antarctica

• Indian Research Centre in Antarctica: Bharati, Dakshin

Gangotri, and Maitri.

Arctic

• India's first research centre "Himadri", located at Spitsbergen, Svalbard, Norway, was established here in 2008.

Highest peaks of all Seven Continents

- Mount Everest (8848 m) - Asia

- Mount Aconcagua (6960 m) - South America

- Mount Denali/ McKinley (6190 m) - North America

- Mount Kilimanjaro (5895 m) - Africa

- Mount Elbrus (5642 m) - Europe

- Mount Vinson Massif (4892 m) - Antarctica

- Mount Kosciuszko (2228 m) - Australia

Decreasing order in height

Cities Located on Banks of River

Table: Columns: River, Cities. Row 1. River: Seine river. Cities: Paris. Row 2. River: Thames river. Cities: London. Row 3. River: Tigris river. Cities: Baghdad. Row 4. River: Danube river. Cities: Budapest. Row 5. River: Nile river. Cities: Cairo. Row 6. River: Ravi river. Cities: Lahore. Row 7. River: Moskva river. Cities: Moscow. Row 8. River: St. Lawrence river. Cities: Montreal/Quebec.

Countries Located Along the Tropics

Countries through which Tropic of Cancer Passes:

1. Mexico

2. Bahamas

3. Western Sahara

4. Mauritania

5. Mali

6. Algeria

7. Nigeria

8. Libya

9. Egypt

10. Saudi Arabia

11. U.A.E

12. Oman

13. India

14. Bangladesh

15. Myanmar

16. China

17. Taiwan

Image summary: A world map featuring a red line marking the Tropic of Cancer at 23.5 degrees North. Several countries through which this line passes are highlighted in various colors and labeled, such as Mexico, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Oman, UAE, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, and Taiwan. The map illustrates the global path and the specific nations intersected by the Tropic of Cancer.

Countries through which Equator Passes:

1. Colombia

2. Ecuador

3. Brazil

4. Sao tome and Principe

5. Republic of Congo

6. Gabon

7. D.R.C Congo

8. Uganda

9. Kenya

10. Somalia

11. Maldives

12. Indonesia

13. Kiribati

Image summary: A world map highlighting several countries in red, including Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia, and Kiribati. Each highlighted country is accompanied by its national flag. The map illustrates the global distribution of these specific nations across South America, Africa, and Asia/Oceania.

Countries through which Tropic of Capricorn Passes:

1. Chile

2. Argentina

3. Paraguay

4. Brazil

5. Namibia

6. Botswana

7. South Africa

8. Mozambique

9. Madagascar

10. Australia

Image summary: A world map highlighting ten specific countries across the Americas, Africa, and Southeast Asia. These locations are distributed across the tropical and subtropical regions. The map identifies these specific countries for a purpose not explained by the visual data alone.

Geographical Timescale

SuperEon to Eon to Era to Period to Epoch

Image summary: A geological timescale diagram showing Eons and Eras from 0 to 4600 million years ago (MYA). The Phanerozoic Eon, containing the Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic Eras, spans the most recent 542 million years, while the Precambrian spans from 542 to 4600 MYA and is subdivided into the Proterozoic, Archean, and Hadean. The diagram illustrates a progression from the formation of Earth in the Hadean, the creation of the crust in the Archean, the beginning of life in the sea during the Proterozoic, and the diversification of life in the Phanerozoic.

Image summary: A timeline diagram depicting geological eras and periods from 542 to 0 million years ago. It spans the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras, illustrating key biological milestones such as the appearance of the first fish and cordates in the Cambrian, the diversification of reptiles in the Permian, the rise of dinosaurs in the Triassic and Jurassic, and the evolution of humans in the Quaternary. The figure illustrates the progression of life's complexity and the sequence of major extinctions and diversifications over Earth's history.

Pattern:

Population Distribution

The top 10 most populous countries of the world contribute about 60% of the world's population in which 6 are located in Asia.

• They are:

1. India: 17.78%

2. China: 17.20%

3. Indonesia: 3.47%

4. Pakistan: 2.90%

5. Bangladesh: 2.10%

6. Russia: 1.80%

Worldwide Five most Populous Countries are: 1. India 2. China 3. U.S.A 4. Indonesia 5. Pakistan

Population Density

Image summary: An artistic illustration of a globe composed of colorful, abstract shapes and collage elements, with small figures of people standing and walking around its perimeter and surface. The image is a conceptual piece depicting global connectivity and human presence worldwide.

Population density = Population/Area

Physiological Density

Physiological Density = Population/Arable Land

Factors Influencing the Distribution of Population

1. Geographical Factors (a) Availability Of Water (b) Landforms (c) Climate (d) Soil 2. Economic Factors (a) Minerals (b) Urbanisation (c) Industrialisation

3. Social and Cultural Factors

Components of Population Change

1. Birth

2. Death

3. Migration

India's crude birth rate (C.B.R) has declined from 19.1 in 2022 to 18.4 in 2023, according to data from the Sample Registration System.

• Crude Birth Rate = Live Birth/ Population X 1000

• Crude Death Rate = No. of Deaths/ Population X 1000

Migration:

Movement of people from one place to another with the intention of settling there (permanently or for a long period).

Emigration: Migrants who move out of a place.

Immigration: Migrants who move into a new place.

Table: Columns: Push Factors, Pull Factors. Row 1. Push Factors: Unemployment, Poor Living Condition, Political Turmoil, Unpleasant Climate, Natural Disasters, Epidemics, Socioeconomic Backwardness.. Pull Factors: Better Job Opportunities, Better Living Conditions, Peace and Stability, Security of Life and Prosperity, Pleasant Climate..

Trends in Population Growth in India

: Image summary: A line chart showing world population in billions over time, from 12,000 years ago to the present. Population remains very low for the majority of the timeline, including the periods of agriculture and European exploration, before rising sharply after 1800. This acceleration is mapped to a series of technological revolutions, including industrial, transportation, medical, biotechnology, and computer revolutions. The takeaway is that technological advancements have driven an exponential increase in the global population, reaching 6 billion by the present.

Image summary: A timeline chart showing the years it took for the world population to increase by increments of 1 billion. The time required to add 1 billion people drops significantly over time, from 100 years between 1 billion and 2 billion, down to 12 years between 5 billion and 6 billion. The takeaway is that the rate of world population growth has accelerated dramatically over the last two centuries.

• The first stage has a high Birth Rate and Death Rate because people reproduce more to Compensate for the deaths due to epidemics and variable food supply.

• 200 years ago the world was in this stage.

• In the last stage both fertility and mortality decline considerably.

In India

• 1901 to 1921: Period of Stagnant Population

• 1921 to 1952: Steady Population Growth

• 1951 to 1981: Population Explosion

• 1981 to 2011: High growth but signs of slowing down

Demographic Transition Model

The five stages of the demographic transition

The demographic transition is a model that describes why rapid population growth is a temporary phenomenon.

Image summary: A multi-panel diagram illustrating the demographic transition model across five stages. It combines a line chart showing birth and death rates per 1,000 people, a table describing the corresponding rates and natural increase, and a series of population pyramids. As the model progresses from Stage 1 to Stage 4, the death rate drops first and the birth rate follows later, creating a period of high natural increase in the middle stages before both stabilize at low levels. Stage 5 suggests a potential further decline in birth rates or a rise in death rates. The takeaway is that populations transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates, resulting in a significant total population increase during the transition.

Stages of the Demographic Transition Model

• Stage 1: Pre-Industrial (High Stationary): High birth rates and high death rates result in slow, fluctuating population growth. High mortality is due to limited food, poor sanitation, and disease.

• Stage 2: Developing (Early Expanding): Death rates drop rapidly due to improvements in food supply, hygiene, and healthcare, while birth rates remain high, leading to a population explosion. Eg. include many sub-Saharan African nations.

• Stage 3: Industrializing (Late Expanding): Birth rates begin to decline due to urbanization, increased education (especially for women), and better access to contraception. Population growth starts to slow. Eg. India.

• Stage 4: Developed (Low Stationary): Both birth and death rates are low, stabilizing the population. Improved living standards and smaller family sizes are common. Eg. the U.S.A and U.K.

• Stage 5: Post-Industrial (Declining): Birth rates fall below death rates, leading to a natural decrease and an aging population. Eg. Japan, Germany, and Italy.

Population Control Measures:

• Access to Family Planning Services

• Free availability of contraceptives

Image summary: Three population pyramids comparing Kenya, the United States, and Italy. Kenya's pyramid has a wide base and narrow top, indicating a high birth rate and youthful population. The United States' pyramid is more rectangular, showing a balanced age distribution. Italy's pyramid has a narrow base and wider top, reflecting a low birth rate and an aging population. The point is that these shapes illustrate how birth and death rates determine whether a population is experiencing rapid growth, slow growth, or zero growth and decrease.

Age Sex Pyramid:

• An age-sex pyramid is primarily known as a population pyramid or an age structure diagram. It is a graphical illustration that shows the distribution of various age for each gender in a specific population.

Thomas Malthus Theory:

Thomas Malthus's theory states that population grows at a geometric rate (multiplying) while the food supply grows at an arithmetic rate (adding).

or,

The number of people would increase faster than the food supply.

Any further increase would result in a population crash caused by famine, disease and war.

Population Composition:

• Working Population (Demographic Dividend): Age 15 to 59 Yrs.

Settlements

{Types of Settlements:}

1. Urban Settlement:

• Towns: Urban settlements with a population of less than 100,000.

• Cities: Urban settlements with a population between 100,000 and 1 million.

• Metropolitan Cities: Urban settlements with a population between 1 million and 10 million.

• Mega Cities: Cities with a population exceeding 10 million.

• Census Towns: Settlements that exhibit urban characteristics (like having a population of 5,000 or more) but are not governed by a statutory local body like a municipality; they are governed by rural administrative structures.

2. Rural settlements:

• Compact/Clustered/Nucleated: Houses are built closely together in a cluster.

• Semi-compact/Semi-clustered/Fragmented: A cluster of houses that may be divided into several sub-clusters.

• Hamleted: Consists of one or more hamlets scattered over a wider area, often at a distance from the main village.

• Dispersed: Houses are widely separated from one another.

Table: Columns: Category, Type of Town/City, Population Range, Example. Row 1. Category: Class 1. Type of Town/City: Large City. Population Range: 1,00,000 and above. Example: Jaipur, Lucknow, Coimbatore. Row 2. Category: Class 2. Type of Town/City: Medium Town. Population Range: 50,000 - 99,999. Example: Saharanpur Bhilai, Siliguri. Row 3. Category: Class 3. Type of Town/City: Small Town. Population Range: 20,000 - 49,999. Example: Satna, Ambikapur, Bhiwadi. Row 4. Category: Class 4. Type of Town/City: Very Small Town. Population Range: 10,000 - 19,999. Example: Lonavala, Hoshiarpur (earlier stages). Row 5. Category: Class V. Type of Town/City: Semi-Urban Area. Population Range: 5,000 - 9,999. Example: Tirur, Balurghat (smaller urban centres). Row 6. Category: Class 6. Type of Town/City: Transitional Settlements. Population Range: Less than 5,000. Example: Emerging urban villages.

Table: The Census of India (under the Ministry of Home Affairs) defines urban areas for demographic and statistical purposes, while the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) is responsible for urban planning, governance, and policy implementation. This system helps in Urban planning, allocation of resources, and implementation of Government schemes..

Image summary: A hierarchical chart titled "MODES OF TRANSPORT" that divides transport into three main categories: Land, Water, and Air. Land transport is split into Roadways and Railways; Water transport is divided into Inland and Seaways; and Air transport is categorized as International and Domestic. The diagram provides a structured classification of the different ways goods and people are transported.

{Roadways}

Modes of Transport

• India's road network is the second largest in the world.

• Total road network length: 66.71 lakh kilometres

Detailed Breakdown:

• Total National Highway Length: 1,46,145 kilometers.

• State Highways: 1,79,535 kilometers.

• Expressways: 5,579 kilometers (as of July 2023).

• Highest road density : Kerala

Lowest road density: Arunachal Pradesh

• State with maximum road length: Maharashtra

• State with least road length: Sikkim

National Highway Authority of India

National Highway Authority of India is the designated authority for construction of Roads in Plane areas. It was established in 1995 and has its headquarter in New Delhi.

Public Works Department (PwD) established in 1854 works for the maintenance of roads at the district and village level.

Motor Vehicle Act: 1988.

National Highway Authority Act: 1988.

National Highways

The National Highways in India are a network of trunk roads owned by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (M.O.R.T.H).

• Longest National Highway: N.H 44 (4112 Km).

It connects Srinagar to Kanyakumari and was earlier known as N.H 7.

• Shortest National Highway: N.H 548 & N.H 118 (5 km)

The historically important Sher Shah Suri Marg is known as National Highway 1. It links Delhi and Amritsar.

Bharatmala Pariyojana:

The Bharatmala Pariyojana was launched with the primary focus on optimizing the efficiency of the movement of goods and people across the country.

• Phase I-approved in October 2017, focuses on development of National Highways.

Note: The Sagarmala Project, launched in 2015, is related to the development of ports.

• Bhupen Hazarika Bridge is the longest bridge constructed over Lohit river and connects Assam to Arunachal Pradesh.

The Golden Quadrilateral (G.Q)

• The Golden Quadrilateral(G.Q) project initiated in 1999, is a national highway network connecting most of the major industrial, agricultural and cultural centres of India.

• It forms a quadrilateral connecting the four major metro cities of India, namely, Delhi (north), Kolkata (east), Mumbai (west) and Chennai (south).

Delhi-Kolkata: N.H.19 (erstwhile N.H.2)

Kolkata-Mumbai: N.H.46 (erstwhile N.H.6)

Mumbai-Chennai: N.H.48 (erstwhile N.H.4)

Delhi-Mumbai: N.H.48 (erstwhile N.H.8)

• It is a system of highways that spans a total length of 5,846 Km (3,633 miles).

Image summary: A map of India depicting major highway projects, with the Golden Quadrilateral outlined in red connecting Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, and Mumbai, and the North-South Corridor in blue running from Srinagar to Kanniakumari. Additional routes include the East-West Corridor in blue and NHDP Phase III roads in green. The map illustrates a comprehensive national highway network designed to connect major cities and ports across the country.

North-South-East-West Corridor

The North-South and East-West Corridor is a network of national highways connecting major cities of India. It consists of two highway systems - the North-South highway extending 4,000 kilometers from Srinagar in the north to Kanyakumari in the south with a spur to Kochi and the East-West highway extending 3,300 from Silchar in the east to Porbandar in the west.

• Jhansi is the junction of North-South and East-West Corridors.

Border Roads

The Border Roads Organisation (Ministry of Defence), established in 1960, aims to boost economic development and defense preparedness by improving road infrastructure in northern and northeastern border areas.

{Railways}

Significant facts about Indian railway network:

• Indian Railways is the 4th largest railway network in the world.

• Dibrugarh(Assam) to Kanyakumari(Tamil Nadu) is the longest train route in India & Vivek Express runs on this route.

• Uttar Pradesh has the longest route of Railway Lines in India while Rajasthan is at 2nd Place.

• Longest Rail Bridge: Bogibeel Bridge (4.94 Km); constructed on the Brahmaputra river - connects Dhemaji & Dibrugarh

• Highest Rail Bridge: Chenab Bridge (359m)

• Longest Railway Station: Hubballi (Karnataka) {1.5 Km}

• 2nd Longest: Gorakhpur

In India Railway Coaches are Manufactured in following places:

- — Chittaranjan Locomotive Works : West Bengal

- – Integral Coach Factory : Perambur (Chennai)

- — Rail Spring Karkhana : Gwalior

- — Rail Coach Factory : Kapurthala (Punjab)

- – Diesel locomotive Works : Varanasi

- — Wheel and Axle Plant : Bengaluru

1st train in India:

Introduced by Dalhousie.

— ran from Mumbai to Thane on 16 April 1853.

• There are total 18 railway zones.

Railway zones and their headquarters

Table: Columns: Northern, New Delhi. Row 1. Northern: North Western. New Delhi: Jaipur. Row 2. Northern: North Central. New Delhi: Prayagraj. Row 3. Northern: North Eastern. New Delhi: Gorakhpur. Row 4. Northern: North East Frontier. New Delhi: Guwahati.

Table: Columns: Southern, Chennai. Row 1. Southern: South Western. Chennai: Huballi. Row 2. Southern: South Central. Chennai: Secunderabad. Row 3. Southern: South Coastal. Chennai: Visakhapatnam. Row 4. Southern: South East Central. Chennai: Bilaspur. Row 5. Southern: South Eastern. Chennai: Kolkata.

Railway Zones & Head-Quarters

Table: Columns: Eastern, Kolkata. Row 1. Eastern: East Central. Kolkata: Hajipur. Row 2. Eastern: East Coast. Kolkata: Bhubaneshwar.

Nearly 90% of India's trade Volume (in terms of value), is moved by sea making shipping, the backbone of trade and economic growth.

1st Under Water Metro : Kolkata

Metro Man of India : E. Sreedharan

Table: Columns: Series Number, Name and Stretch, Geographic Extent. Row 1. Series Number: ^*National Waterway No.1(NWI). Name and Stretch: Ganga between Allahabad-Haldia (1620 kilometers). Geographic Extent: UP, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. Row 2. Series Number: National Waterway No.2(NWI). Name and Stretch: Sadiya-Dhubri stretch of river Brahmaputra (891 kilometers). Geographic Extent: Assam. Row 3. Series Number: National Waterway No.3(NW: 3). Name and Stretch: Kollam-Kottapuram stretch of West Coast Canal along with Champakara and Udyogmandal Canals (205 kilometers). Geographic Extent: Kerala.. Row 4. Two proposed Waterways (recently declared). Row 5. Series Number: National Waterway No.4(NWIV). Name and Stretch: Kakinada-Puducherry stretch of Canals and the Kalavelly Tank, Bhadrachalam - Rajahmundry stretch of River Godavari and Wazirabad - Vijayawada stretch of River Krishna (1095 kilometers). Geographic Extent: Andhra Pradesh. Row 6. Series Number: National Waterway No.5(NWV). Name and Stretch: The Talcher-Dhamma stretch of river Brahmani, Geonkhal-Charbatia stretch of East Coast Canal, Charbatia-Dhamma stretch of Matai river and Mangalgadi-Paradip stretch of Mahanadi delta rivers (623 kilometers).. Geographic Extent: Dhamma, Orrissa.

National Waterways

Image summary: A map of India depicting the six National Waterways, showing their routes, lengths, and the states they serve. NW-1 is the longest route from Haldia to Allahabad, followed by NW-4, NW-2, NW-5, NW-3, and NW-6. The map shows a total network length of 4,503 km serving 15 states, illustrating the strategic distribution of navigable river and canal systems across the country.

**To read more in detail about National Waterways, please refer to the 'Ports' sections

Inland Waterways Authority of India (I.W.A.I),

I.W.A.I, established in 1986 under the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways, is responsible for the development, maintenance, and regulation of inland waterways for shipping and navigation in India. It has its headquarters in Noida, Uttar Pradesh.

Air Transport

• Air services in India started in: 1911

• State with Most no. of International Airports: Uttar

Pradesh (Kerala stands at 2nd Place)

• Largest Airport: Indira Gandhi International Airport.

I.G.I.A (New Delhi)

Recently in February 2025, I.G.A.I became the first Indian airport to run entirely on solar and hydro power.

• Smallest Airport: Baljek AirPort (Meghalaya)

• Oldest AirPort: Juhu Aerodrome in Bombay (established in 1928)

Airports Authority of India (A.A.I)

A.A.I is a statutory body under the ownership of the Ministry of Civil Aviation, Government of India.

• A.A.I currently manages a total of 137 airports, including 34 international airports, 10 Customs Airports, 81 domestic airports, and 23 Civil enclaves at Defense airfields.

• It was established in 1995 and has its Headquarters in New Delhi.

: Image summary: A map of India showing the locations of various airports, including international and domestic facilities, labeled with the names of prominent leaders and cities. The map identifies key hubs like New Delhi, Mumbai, and Chennai, marking their status through a legend that distinguishes between international and domestic airports. The purpose of the map is to illustrate the distribution of airport infrastructure across the country.

Greenfield Airports: Airports that are built from scratch in a previously undeveloped land.

Brownfield Airports: These are existing airports that are upgraded, modernized, or expanded rather than built from scratch.

Ancient History

Image summary: A hierarchical flow chart illustrating the chronological progression of ancient Indian history. It begins with the Stone Age and descends through major eras including the Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic Age, Sangam Age, the rise of Jainism and Buddhism, Mahajanapadas, and various dynasties such as the Maurya, Gupta, and Post-Gupta periods, ending with the Tripartite Struggle and Cholas. The diagram serves to organize the timeline of early Indian civilization and the succession of its political and cultural epochs.

। Image summary: An educational infographic about the history of India, divided into sections covering the Division of History, the Paleolithic Period, the Quaternary Stage of Life, and Ancient History. It provides timelines for Ancient, Medieval, and Modern history, describes geological eras like the Pleistocene and Holocene, and details the Stone, Copper, and Bronze ages. The Paleolithic section specifically breaks down the Lower, Middle, and Upper periods by time, tool technology, and known archaeological sites. The overall purpose is to provide a structured overview of the chronological and geological progression of human history in India.

Evolution of Man

Australopithecus to Homo

Habilis implies Homo Erectus implies Homo Neanderthalensis implies Homo say-pee-enz

• The skull of Homo Erectus was found in Hathnora (Madhya Pradesh) near Narmada river.

5. S. Wakankar (Father of Indian Rock Art) discovered Bhimbhetka rock caves in 1957.

• Location: 40 kilometers South-East of Bhopal (Raisen District within the Vindhyachal ranges) in Madhya Pradesh.

Archibald Campbell Carleyle was the first one to identify/discover few rock paintings in India in Sohagighat, Uttar Pradesh during 1867 to 68.

Mesolithic Period (Meso: Middle; Lithic: Stone

• It is also known as Microlithic.

Time period: 9000 B.C-7000 B.C (12,000 B.C-10,000 B.C, S.S.C)

• Transitional phase between Palaeolithic and Neolithic.

Warmer climate increased flora and fauna.

• Mesolithic humans were hunters and gatherers.

• The earliest Mesolithic evidence of animal

domestication in India is found at Bagor in Rajasthan and Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh.

Sites

Langhnaj: Mehsana, Gujarat

• Bhimbetka and Adamgarh: Madhya Pradesh.

• Chopani Mand: Uttar Pradesh; near Belan Valley.

• Bagor: Rajasthan (Largest microlithic site in India)

• Sanganakallu: Karnataka.

• Tuticorin: Southern Tamil Nadu.

Neolithic Period (Neo: New; Lithict: Stones)

Time period: 7000 B.C-1000 B.C

• Art: Bhimbetka (Rock paintings of humans, birds, animals).

• Neolithic People owned property.

- Late Neolithic settlers were agriculturists who lived in circular (communal property) and rectangular (individual

property) houses made of mud and pits, which is archaeologically attested.

• Pottery: It was first invented in the neolithic period to store excess food grains (Cord impressed pottery).

Sites

Image summary: A photograph of a textured, flared ceramic vessel with a wide rim and a tapered base. The exterior is decorated with carved patterns, including diagonal hatch marks on the upper section and vertical linear motifs on the lower section. It is an archaeological artifact used to illustrate ancient pottery craftsmanship.

• Mehrgarh, 7000 B.C (oldest neolithic site of Indian subcontinent in Balochistan, Pakistan): It provides evidence of early houses and the earliest traces of agriculture, with crops such as wheat, barley, and cotton cultivated here.

• Kashmir Valley: Burzahom and Gufkral

- Burzahom (16 kilometers west of Srinagar): This site provides evidence of domestic dogs buried with their Masters, people lived on a lake side in pits, use of Coarse grey pottery and Bone Tools.

- Gufkral: "Cave of potters" (41 kilometers southeast of Srinagar); agriculture and domestication of animals.

- Bihar: Chirand (tools made of bones were found here).

- Karnataka: Sanganakallu, Brahmapiri, Maski, Piklihal, Hallur (millet cultivation).

• Andhra Pradesh: Around Bhima, Krishna, Tungabhadra river. Budihal, Utnur (earliest site), Nagarjunakonda.

• Belan Valley (U.P): Koldihwa and Mahagara (Earliest evidence of rice cultivation; 7000 B.C).

• Tamil Nadu: Paiyampalli and Kaveri.

- Meghalaya: Garo Hills.

- Assam: Daojali Hading (Jadeite stone found here).

• Catal Huyuk: Türkiye (One of

the first human protocities).

Image summary: A photo of a polished, dark green stone object with an elongated, rounded shape, tapering slightly toward the bottom. It is a simple artifact image with no data or analytical results to report.

Cord impressed pottery

Celt

Jadeite stone

Chalcolithic Period (Chalco: Copper; Lithic: Stone)

• The first metal to be discovered by humans was: Copper.

Time period: 3500 B.C-1000 B.C.

• People lived in rural communities.

• They did not know about horses and burnt bricks.

Sites

Copper Mines

1. Khetri Mines (Rajasthan).

2. Malanjkhand (Madhya Pradesh).

South Eastern Rajasthan: Ahar and Gilund (near Banas Valley), Ganeshwar (Copper tools were obtained here).

• Eastern India: Chirand (Ganga), Burdwan, Midnapore.

• Western Madhya Pradesh: Malwa (Narmada), Kayatha (Kalisindh), Eran, Navdatoli (Narmada).

Western Maharashtra: Jorwe (First), Pravara valley (Godavari).

• Savalda (Tapti).

Under Jorwe Culture

Nevasa

• Daimabad (Largest site)

• Chandoli

• Inamgaon

Nasik

Burial Habits

Image summary: A map showing the geographic distribution of several ancient Indian cultures. Harappa occupies the largest area in the northwest, while the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura, Ahar, Kayatha and Malwa, and Jorwe cultures are situated in smaller, distinct regions to the east and south. The map illustrates the territorial spread and relative locations of these diverse early civilizations.

• They practised “Urn” burial.

{Pottery}

- Black and red ware used.

Image summary: A photo showing two ancient ceramic bowls on display in a museum case. One bowl is reddish-brown and the other is black, each resting on its own pedestal. This is a documentary image of museum artifacts with no data or analytical result to report.

- Ochre coloured potteries were used.

☐ ☐ ☐

Indus Valley Civilization

Indus Valley Civilization (I.V.C)/Harappan Civilization

• Time Period: 2500 to 1750 B.C.E

• It is also known as Bronze Age.

• Named by: John Marshall {Director of Archaeological Survey of India (A.S.I)}.

• Harappa was the 1st site to be discovered in I.V.C in 1921 by Dayaram Sahni while Mohenjodaro was discovered in 1922 by Rakhal Das Banerjee.

• First Chairman of A.S.I: “Alexander Cunningham” (Father of Indian Archaeology).

• Alexander Cunningham identified the location of the Ancient City of Taxila.

• First female director of A.S.I: Debala Mitra.

Image summary: A map of the Indus Valley Civilisation during its Mature Phase from approximately 2600 to 1900 BCE. It shows major urban centers such as Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, and Lothal distributed across a region defined by the Indus and its tributaries, flanked by surrounding cultures like the Mundigak, Kulli, and Kayatha. The map illustrates the vast geographic extent and river-centric settlement pattern of the civilization.

• The Cholistan region in present-day Pakistan was once a thriving part of the Indus Valley Civilization.

• Most of the Mature Harappan sites in the region of Cholistan had been abandoned during 1800 B.C.E.

Image summary: A map showing the geographical extent of the Indus Valley Civilization, marked by an orange shaded region. Its boundaries are defined by Manda in the north, Alamgirpur in the east, Daimabad in the south, and Sutkengdor in the west. The map illustrates the vast territorial reach of the civilization across a large portion of South Asia.

Image summary: A table listing archaeological sites categorized by three chronological phases of the Harappan civilization. Early Harappan Sites date from 3000-2600 BCE, Mature Harappan Sites from 2600-1900 BCE, and Late Harappan Sites from 1900-1700 BCE, with each period associated with specific geographical locations such as Kot Diji, Mohenjodaro, and Daimabad. The table provides a temporal framework for the development and decline of the Harappan civilization across different settlement sites.

• A shift in the course of the Hakra river system is a key factor marking the transition from Mature Harappan to Late Harappan phase.

• Garden of I.V.C/Oasis of Sindh : Mohenjodaro

Note: This chart is not much important for SSC exams.

{Agriculture}

- Major Crops: Wheat & Barley, Cotton, Lentil, Chickpea, Sesame, Millets, Rice (rare), Garlic.

Agricultural Technologies

• Cotton was one of the distinguishing feature of I.V.C.

• Greeks used the name

"Sindon" for cotton.

• Ploughed field found at Kalibangan (Rajasthan). Two sets of furrow were found at right angle suggesting two different crops were grown together.

• Oxen were used for ploughing.

• Terracotta model of plough found in Cholistan and Banawali.

Animal Domestication

• Cattle like sheep, goat, buffalo, pig, bull, ox were domesticated.

• Evidence of horse and cow are not found.

• A bone of horse was discovered from Surkotada (Gujarat).

- Bones of boar, gharial, deer, fish, and fowl were found, which indicates about their domestication.

Town Planning

• The most unique feature of Harappan Civilization was development of Urban Centres.

• Most Harappan sites were divided into two parts

Two Parts

Citadel / Acropolis

• Smaller but higher town.

• Meant for special public purposes.

Lower Town

• Larger but lower town.

• Meant for residential buildings.

Both Citadel and Lower Town were Fortified (walled) and physically separated.

- The citadel in Harappa was a fortified, elevated area (typically to the west) used for administrative, religious,

- and ceremonial functions. It served as a secure hub for the ruling class, featuring important buildings like granaries for storage, assembly halls, and structures for public baths, while protecting them from floods and enemies.

Exception:

Image summary: An illustration of an ancient city layout with labels identifying three primary areas: the Citadel, the Fortification, and the Lower Town. The image depicts the spatial organization of the settlement, showing a central fortified area separated from the more sprawling residential sections.

• Dholavira (Gujarat) was divided into three parts and Chanhudaro (Pakistan) had no Citadel.

• The Citadel within Lothal was not surrounded by a fortification but instead was built on raised mud-brick platform.

The Great Bath

• Great Bath (at Mohenjo-daro) is rectangle shaped tank like structure (12 m length, 7 m width and 2.4 m depth), which might have been used for ritual bathing.

Gypsum based Mortar was used for waterproofing.

Great Granary

• It was the largest building in Mohenjodaro.

• It was used for storage of grains.

Image summary: A photograph showing the excavated stone foundations of a large, rectangular complex with partitioned rooms, situated in a grassy landscape with trees in the background. The image depicts an archaeological site, illustrating the layout and scale of an ancient structure.

• Total 12 granaries (6 granaries in each row)

- A circular bricks platform was found in harappa.

Brick granary of Harappa

Domestic Architecture

Image summary: A photograph of an archaeological site featuring the ruins of brick walls, foundations, and a central stepped basin or pool. The ruins are composed of light-colored earthy materials, depicting the layout of an ancient structural complex.

Image summary: A photograph showing an archaeological excavation site with stone walls and ruins. A person is seen working amidst the stone structures. The image documents the process of uncovering historical ruins.

Image summary: A grid of three photographs showing ancient brick masonry and drainage structures, including a close-up of a circular cesspit. These images document an early urban sewage and wastewater management system.

Drainage system of I.V.C

• Most distinctive feature of Harappa Civilization.

• Sumps or Cesspits were made between drains to clean and trap solid waste.

The I.V.C was known for its advanced urban planning and well-structured houses and streets were made in grid pattern.

• The houses were made of burnt bricks (baked bricks).

Bricks of standardised ratio (1:2:4) were used.

- Little pots of faience (a rare glazed material made from ground silica) were used primarily as luxury containers for precious substances like perfume or oil.

• Saddle querns were essential stone tools used for

grinding cereals like wheat.

Doors were made of wood.

• Every house had its own bathroom, many of them had their own private wells also.

• Grid pattern roads/streets, intersecting at right angle (90°). E.g. Lothal.

Image summary: An aerial view of ancient stone architectural ruins consisting of interconnected rectangular structures, courtyards, and perimeter walls. The layout shows a complex arrangement of rooms and open spaces, depicting the structural organization of a historical settlement.

• Stone was predominantly used for constructing the foundations of most of Dholavira site.

- Limestone slabs were used as drain covers.

• Canal Traces were found at Shortugai.

Grid Pattern

Tracking Social Differences Burials Habits

• Some of the graves contain Potteries and ornaments as belief that it can be used in after

Ornaments, consisting of three shell rings, a Jasper Bead and hundred of micro beads, were found near the skull of a male at Harappa.

• Jewellery was found in burial of both men and women.

• The Dead were buried with copper mirrors.

• Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with the dead.

• Burial of dogs along with their masters (found in Ropar, Punjab).

Image summary: A photograph of a human skeleton lying in a rectangular stone or earthen burial pit, with a scale bar placed at the bottom for measurement. The image documents an archaeological find, depicting the positioning and state of an ancient burial.

: Image summary: A black and white photograph of an archaeological excavation showing a concentration of small, rounded objects, possibly pottery shards or stones, clustered within a pit or trench, with a scale bar at the bottom. The image documents the spatial distribution and density of these artifacts in situ.

Coffin burial excavated in Harappa

Urn burial

Craft Production

Image summary: A black-and-white photograph of an archaeological excavation showing the skeletal remains of two individuals positioned closely together within a rectangular grave pit, with a scale bar at the top for size reference. The image documents a double burial site.

Image summary: Two photographs of archaeological excavations. The top image shows a stone structure resting above a burial site containing skeletal remains. The bottom image shows a separate excavation pit containing a large ceramic pot. These images document the discovery of ancient artifacts and human remains in situ.

Image summary: A black and white photograph of an archaeological excavation showing a human skeleton lying within a rectangular stone-lined grave. This image documents a burial site and the positioning of the remains within its stone enclosure.

Beads of diverse shapes, including cylindrical, circular (spherical), and barrel shaped, are hallmark artifacts of the I.V.C.

• Chanhudaro: Bead making, shell cutting, metal working, seal making, and weight making.

Image summary: A photograph showing a collection of ancient artifacts, including beads, necklaces, rings, and elongated tools, arranged systematically against a black background. The image serves as a catalog of archaeological finds, showcasing a variety of prehistoric personal adornments and implements.

Image summary: A photograph of a ring featuring a large, oval-shaped green gemstone set in a silver-colored metal band with decorative prongs. It is a product image showing a piece of jewelry.

• Nageshwar (Gujarat) and Balakot (Pakistan): They were centres for shell making (Bangles, Ladles, and Inlay).

Harappans buried with ornaments and potteries

Double/Joint burial excavated from Lothal

Ornaments from IVC

Jadeite stone

Other Trade & Commerce Sites

• Shortugai (Badakhshan mines,

Afghanistan): Lapis Lazuli Stone

• South Rajasthan & North Gujarat: Steatite (soft stone)

Gujarat (Ratnapur): Carnelian Stone

• Kolar (Karnataka): Gold

• Rajasthan and Magan (modern-day Oman): Copper

Image summary: A close-up photo of several pieces of raw, red meat. This is a descriptive image with no data or analytical result to report.

: Image summary: A close-up photo of several blue, translucent, spherical beads. This is a descriptive image with no data or analytical result to report.

• Mesopotamia (cradle of Civilization) was the primary overseas trading partner of I.V.C people.

• In Mesopotamian writings, Meluhha refers to the I.V.C.

Image summary: A map of the Middle East showing the Fertile Crescent, highlighted as a green arc stretching from the Nile river valley in Egypt through the Levant to Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It also marks early settlements like Çatalhöyük and Jericho as first towns. The map illustrates the geographic distribution of early agricultural and urban development in the region.

Carnelian

Lapis Lazuli

Harappan seals

- Harappan seals were made of steatite (a type of soft stone).

The Harappans were not aware about lion.

- The Seals often contained animal motifs (Short Script) and a pictographic script.

- The seals usually have a line of writing probably containing the name and title of the owner.

• They knew about ships, as ships were portrayed in seals.

{Script}

- The Harappan writing system is commonly known as Indus Script which was written in boustrophedon style (Right to Left then left to right).

• The script is not in alphabetical order and is pictographic.

- Most inscriptions are short, the longest inscription contains about 26 signs.

• They were found on jewellery, bone rods, seals, copper tools, jars, and an ancient signboard.

• The script is undeciphered till date.

Weights

Barter system was prominent in I.V.C.

• The weights were uniform.

• Exchange was regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called “Chert”.

Image summary: A photograph showing a row of six cube-shaped objects of varying sizes and colors, arranged from largest on the left to smallest on the right. This is a descriptive image with no data or analytical result to report.

• Sukkur and Rohri hills: Limestone and Chert blades were mass produced and sent to various Harappan settlements in Sindh.

• Lower denomination of weights: were in Binary system.

• Higher denomination of weights: were in Decimal system.

Weights were in Multiples of 16

Religious Practices

• They worshipped unusual or unfamiliar objects such as Mother Goddess, Priest King, etcetera

- Fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal indicate fire worship.

- Lingas: Conical shaped stone objects worshipped as symbol of Shiva.

Image summary: A photograph of a weathered terracotta figurine depicting a human figure with a distinct headdress and arms raised toward the chest. The image is a documentary photograph of an artifact, with no data or analytical result to report.

Terracotta figure of a Mother Goddess (Found in Mohenjadaro) symbolises a Tree Growing out of Embryo

Seals

: Image summary: A photograph of a carved stone bust depicting a bearded male figure with closed eyes and decorative patterns on the chest. It is an artistic depiction of a historical sculpture, with no data or analytical result to report.

• Unicorn: One Horned Animal.

• Proto Shiva seal (Pashupati).

Image summary: A photo of an ancient Indus Valley seal featuring a carved unicorn-like animal facing left, accompanied by several symbolic characters etched above and to the left of the creature. It is an archaeological artifact, with no data or analytical result to report.

Priest King (17.5 cm/6.9 inches tall) made of steatite obtained from Mohenjodaro

One horned animal (Unicorn)

Pottery Used

Image summary: A photograph of a vertical, rounded stone object with a textured, weathered surface and a faint, light-colored mark in the center. It is a simple image of an artifact, with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A photograph of an ancient stone carving or seal featuring stylized figures, symbols, and script. The image depicts an archaeological artifact used for recording information or authentication.

• Hakra Pottery (Early Harappan phase)

• Ochre coloured pottery (Late

Harappan phase).

• Black-Red ware pottery.

Image summary: A black and white photo of a small, dark bronze figurine of a human figure standing on a base. The figure is posed with one hand on its hip and the other arm hanging by its side, serving as an artistic representation of a human form.

Image summary: A photograph of five ancient pottery vessels of varying sizes and shapes, ranging from a small flat-bottomed flask to a tall narrow-necked jar and a wide rounded pot, all set against a dark background. This is a documentary image of artifacts, with no data or analytical result to report.

Linga

**IVC people did not know about Iron but knew about gold.

Shiva in yogic posture (Pashupati seal)

The dancing girl statue (10.5 cm tall) made of bronze in Tribhanga Mudra

Possible Reasons for Decline of Harappan Civilization

• Climate Change

• Deforestation

• Excessive Floods

• Foreign invasion

• Shifting or Drying up of Rivers

Important Sites

Image summary: A photo of an ancient, dark-colored terracotta figurine depicting a stylized human torso without a head or limbs. The form features simplified, rounded protrusions at the shoulders and chest, serving as an early example of prehistoric anthropomorphic art.

Table: Columns: Site, River, Characteristic Features. Row 1. Site: Harappa (1921) by D. R. Sahni in Punjab; Pakistan. River: Ravi. Characteristic Features: 12 Granaries (6 granaries in a row) First IVC Site; Male Torso Sculpture (made from Red Stone) was found.

Table: Columns: Mohenjodaro (1922) by R. D. Banerjee in Sindh; Pakistan, Indus, Great Bath; Great Gramine; protoshiva; Dancing girl statue; Goddess earth; Bearded man. Row 1. Mohenjodaro (1922) by R. D. Banerjee in Sindh; Pakistan: Chanhudaro in Sindh. Indus: Indus. Great Bath; Great Gramine; protoshiva; Dancing girl statue; Goddess earth; Bearded man: City without Citadel. Row 2. Mohenjodaro (1922) by R. D. Banerjee in Sindh; Pakistan: Lothal in Gujarat by S. R. Rao. Indus: Bhogava. Great Bath; Great Gramine; protoshiva; Dancing girl statue; Goddess earth; Bearded man: Ancient port/ dockyard; Fire altar; Double burial. Row 3. Mohenjodaro (1922) by R. D. Banerjee in Sindh; Pakistan: Kalibangan in Rajasthan. Indus: Ghaggar. Great Bath; Great Gramine; protoshiva; Dancing girl statue; Goddess earth; Bearded man: Fire altars; black bangles; ploughed field; Two different crops were grown together.. Row 4. Mohenjodaro (1922) by R. D. Banerjee in Sindh; Pakistan: Rakhigarhi in Haryana. Indus: Ghaggar. Great Bath; Great Gramine; protoshiva; Dancing girl statue; Goddess earth; Bearded man: Largest IVC site; Terracotta wheel; Toys. Row 5. Mohenjodaro (1922) by R. D. Banerjee in Sindh; Pakistan: Dholavira in Kutch area; Gujarat, discovered by J. P. Joshi and excavated by R. S. Bisht. Great Bath; Great Gramine; protoshiva; Dancing girl statue; Goddess earth; Bearded man: Giant water reservoir; City was divided into three parts; Dams and water harvesting and water management system India's 40 raised to th UNESCO site, added in 2021.. Row 6. Mohenjodaro (1922) by R. D. Banerjee in Sindh; Pakistan: Banawali in Haryana by R. S. Bisht. Great Bath; Great Gramine; protoshiva; Dancing girl statue; Goddess earth; Bearded man: Barley; Lack of grid patterns; Terracotta model of plough; Toilet in a house. Row 7. Mohenjodaro (1922) by R. D. Banerjee in Sindh; Pakistan: Bhirrana in Haryana. Great Bath; Great Gramine; protoshiva; Dancing girl statue; Goddess earth; Bearded man: Oldest IVC site; the earliest radiocarbon dates for the IVC. Row 8. Mohenjodaro (1922) by R. D. Banerjee in Sindh; Pakistan: Surkotada in Kutch, Gujarat by J.P. Joshi. Great Bath; Great Gramine; protoshiva; Dancing girl statue; Goddess earth; Bearded man: Fortified citadel; Evidence of horse remains were found. Row 9. Mohenjodaro (1922) by R. D. Banerjee in Sindh; Pakistan: Ropar in Punjab. Indus: Sutlej. Great Bath; Great Gramine; protoshiva; Dancing girl statue; Goddess earth; Bearded man: Pit burial. Row 10. Mohenjodaro (1922) by R. D. Banerjee in Sindh; Pakistan: Sonauli in UP. Great Bath; Great Gramine; protoshiva; Dancing girl statue; Goddess earth; Bearded man: Extended burial.

Male Torso of the Harappan Civilization

□ □ □

Vedic Age

Vedic Age (1500 to 600 B.C)

- —Early Vedic Age (1500 to 1000 B.C) to They were pastoral community

- Later Vedic Age (1000 to 600 B.C).

- Boghazkoi Inscription (Türkiye): It mentions names such as Indra, Varun, etcetera

• It is believed that Aryans arrived from Central Asia, where one group migrated from Turkey towards Europe and other came towards India.

- Language of Aryans: Sanskrit.

• The Aryans are credited with codifying the Vedas.

Vedas

- The word Veda is derived from the Sanskrit root word "Vid", which means "to know".

• There are four Vedas: Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.

• Oldest Text of Aryans is the Avesta/Zend-Avesta (ee-rahn).

Only Rig Veda was compiled during Early Vedic Age, rest three Vedas were compiled in later vedic age.

• Apaurusheya: They are not created by man but gifted by God.

• They were orally passed (Shruti) from one generation to another.

Subdivisions of Vedas

Table: Columns: Samhita, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads. Row 1. Samhita: Collection of Hymns (Sukta). Brahmanas: Sacrifices and Rituals. Aranyakas: Hermits (those who lived in jungles). Upanishads: Bhakti (talks about Bhakti Marga).

Rig Veda

• It was the first Veda to be compiled.

• It has the oldest and largest collection of Sanskrit hymns.

• Total: 1028 hymns and 10,600 Verses

• Hymns are recited by Hotri.

• Sukta were known as hymns in Rigveda.

• Deities: Indra (known as Purandar), Agni (God of Fire), Vishnu, Soma, and Varuna (God of Rita).

• Female deities: Aditi (Mother of Gods), Raka (goddess of prosperity), Sinivali (goddess of fertility) and Usha (goddess of dawn).

• The terms nrti (dance/dancer) and nrtu (danseuse/female dancer) are mentioned in the Rig Veda.

- The Rigveda mentioned the names of some learned ladies like Ghosha, Apala and Viswavara, who composed mantras and attained the rank of Rishis.

• In the Rig Veda Samhita, use of the terms Ishukrit and Isukara referred to the maker of Arrows.

• Somras is an energy drink.

• It is made up of 10 mandalas and mandala no. 2 to 7 were created first.

• Gayatri Mantra was written by Sage Vishwamitra for Goddess Savitri (mentioned in 3rd mandala).

• 9th mandala mentions: Lord Soma (Lord of Plants).

• 10th Mandala mentions about the hymn of Purusha Shukta.

- Mouth: Brahmans

- Arms: Kshatriya

- Thighs: Vaishya

- Feet: Shudra

Sama Veda

These four varnas are believed to have emerged from different parts of Purusha (Cosmic being).

• It is the oldest book on music.

• It consists of chanting melodies.

• The Udgatri (or Udgatr) sings the saman (melodies) to invoke gods.

• Samveda is traditionally paired with an Upaveda known as Gandharvaveda.

Sahmavehdah

the Book of Music

• It is composed of two Upanishads: Chandogya and Kena.

Yajur Veda

• It is the collection of mantras (rituals and sacrifices).

• It is divided into two section; Shukla (meaning: White or Pure, focused on mantras only, and Krishna (meaning: Black/Mixed that is Mantra & Explanation).

Image summary: An illustration depicting a bowl with a ritual fire being fed by a spoon of ghee, positioned next to a book titled Yajurveda. The image depicts the practice of ritual sacrifice as described in the Yajurveda.

• The Brahmana text related to Yajurveda: Taittiriya (Black) and Shatapatha Brahmana (largest).

• The Adhvaryu are the reciters of the Yajurveda who perform the action-oriented rituals.

Vedamurti Devavrat Mahesh Rekhe, a 19-year-old Vedic scholar from Maharashtra, indeed completed the Dandakrama Parayanam — a rare recitation of about 2,000 mantras from the Shukla Yajurveda's Madhyandina branch — over 50 consecutive days in Varanasi.

Important Upanishads of Yajur Veda

• Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (oldest Upnishad): A key text of the Shukla Yajurveda; mentioned Gargi Vachaknavi (a renowned female sage).

• Katha Upanishad (Kathopanishad) {contains story of Nachiketa and Yama (God of Death)}.

• Jabala Upanishad is a part of Shukla Yajurveda.

Table: Columns: 1st Phase, Brahmacharya, Learning and disciplined life. Row 1. 1st Phase: 2nd Phase. Brahmacharya: Grihasta. Learning and disciplined life: Householder Life. Row 2. 1st Phase: 3rd Phase. Brahmacharya: Vanaprastha. Learning and disciplined life: Hermit/Retirement Life. Row 3. 1st Phase: 4th Phase. Brahmacharya: Sanyasa. Learning and disciplined life: Renunciation.

Atharva Veda

• It is divided into 20 khandas.

- Veda of magic formulas to ward off evil spirits and diseases (black magic).

• Performed by Brahman priest.

Image summary: An illustration depicting a mortar and pestle, a cross symbol, a flame, and a book labeled Atharvaveda. This is a symbolic representation associated with the Jabala Upanishad, with no data or analytical result to report.

• Gopatha Brahmana is the only surviving Brahmana (prose commentary) text exclusively associated with the Atharvaveda.

Important Upanishads of Atharva Veda

• Mundaka Upanishad: Satyameva Jayate taken from here.

Maha Upanishad: Vasudhaiva Kutumbkham (meaning: "the whole world is one family") taken from Chapter 6 of Maha Upanishad.

• Mundaka Upanishad is longer than Mandukya Upanishad.

Table: Columns: Schools of Philosophy, Propounded By. Row 1. Schools of Philosophy: Samkhya (Analysis/Dualism): Oldest. Propounded By: Kapila. Row 2. Schools of Philosophy: Nyaya (School of Logic and Reasoning). Propounded By: Aksapada Gautama. Row 3. Schools of Philosophy: Vaisheshika (Atomism/Physics). Propounded By: Maharshi Kanad. Row 4. Schools of Philosophy: Yoga (Synchronisation of Body and Mind). Propounded By: Patanjali. Row 5. Schools of Philosophy: Uttar Mimansa (Metaphysics). Propounded By: Badarayana. Row 6. Schools of Philosophy: Purva Mimansa (Ritualism). Propounded By: Jaimini.

ATHARVAVEDA THE BOOK OF SPELLS AND HEALING

Vedangas

• They are tools to understand Vedas.

• They are philosophical teachings of Upanishads.

• There are total six Vedangas.

Table: Columns: Siksha, Study of phonetics. Row 1. Siksha: Kalpa. Study of phonetics: Study of practices. Row 2. Siksha: Vyakaran. Study of phonetics: Study of grammar. Row 3. Siksha: Nirukta. Study of phonetics: Study of etymology. Row 4. Siksha: Jyoti. Study of phonetics: Study of light. Row 5. Siksha: Chhanda. Study of phonetics: Study of poetic matter.

Early Vedic Age

• Mention of: Himvanta (Himalaya) and Munjavat (Hindu Kush) in Rig Veda.

• Mention of: Sapta Sindhu in Rig Veda.

Mention of rivers in Rig Veda

Saraswati (50 to 75 times),

Sindhu (30 to 35 times),

Yamuna (3 times),

Ganga (1 time, Mandala 10).

Table: Columns: River, Old Name. Row 1. River: Indus. Old Name: Sindhu. Row 2. River: Jhelum. Old Name: Vitasta. Row 3. River: Chenab. Old Name: Askini.

Table: Columns: Ravi, Purushini. Row 1. Ravi: Beas. Purushini: Bipasha. Row 2. Ravi: Sutlej. Purushini: Shutudri. Row 3. Ravi: Saraswati. Purushini: Saraswati (A mythical river).

• The Chautang River's old name is the Drishadvati River.

Battle of 10 Kings

• Battle of 10 Kings (Dasarajna Yuddha) mentioned in the 7th mandala of Rig Veda.

• Between: Bharata tribe (leader: Sudas) vs 10 kings.

Won by: Bharata tribe

• It was fought on the banks of Purushini (Ravi river).

Society

Social Structure

• Society was primarily tribal and largely egalitarian.

• The term “Jana” referred to a tribe or group of related families.

- Division into four varnas, based on profession (not hereditary).

Marriage & Family

• Child marriage was not prevalent.

: Image summary: An inverted pyramid diagram illustrating a social hierarchy from the Jabala Upanishad, with Rashtra at the widest top layer, followed by Jana, Visa, Grama, and Kula at the narrowest bottom. This structure depicts a descending order of social organization from the largest political or national unit down to the smallest family unit.

- Monogamy was the general rule, though some princes practiced polygamy.

• Niyoga (widow remarriage) was allowed.

Status of Women

• Women enjoyed a fairly good position in society.

• They participated in religious and social life.

Economy & Wealth

• The cow (Aghanya – sacred) was considered the chief measure of wealth.

• A wealthy person was called Gomat.

• Battles for cattle were known as Gavisthi.

Polity

• Tribal Kinship (Elective Monarchy) was followed.

• The Yajamana was the householder who sponsored the Yajna, usually performed at his home.

Table: Columns: Sabha, Community of privileged. Row 1. Sabha: Samiti. Community of privileged: Community of common people. Row 2. Sabha: Vidhata. Community of privileged: Community for religious purpose.

Ranking of Officials

Women could participate in both Sabha and Samiti

Table: Columns: Rajana, Tribal Chief. Row 1. Rajana: Purohit. Tribal Chief: Priest. Row 2. Rajana: Senani. Tribal Chief: Army Chief. Row 3. Rajana: Sangrihitri. Tribal Chief: Tax collecting officers. Row 4. Rajana: Shresthin. Tribal Chief: Merchants. Row 5. Rajana: Gramani. Tribal Chief: Village head.

Religious Practices

• They Worshipped nature (naturalistic polytheism) and no animal was worshipped.

• They did not worship any idol.

• They performed sacrificial prayers.

Table: Columns: Deities, Worshipped As. Row 1. Deities: Indra. Worshipped As: Purandara; destroyer of forts (lord of plough). Row 2. Deities: Prithvi. Worshipped As: Goddess of nature. Row 3. Deities: Agni. Worshipped As: Intermediary between human and God. Row 4. Deities: Soma. Worshipped As: Lord of plants. Row 5. Deities: Vayu. Worshipped As: God of air. Row 6. Deities: Varuna. Worshipped As: God of Water or Rita. Row 7. Deities: Rudra. Worshipped As: Protector of Cattle. Row 8. Deities: Aditi. Worshipped As: Mother of Sun & Indra. Row 9. Deities: Savitri. Worshipped As: Goddess of purity. Row 10. Deities: Raka. Worshipped As: Goddess of prosperity. Row 11. Deities: Sinivali. Worshipped As: Goddess of fertility. Row 12. Deities: Usha. Worshipped As: Goddess of dawn.

Pottery

- Ochre coloured pottery was used.

Later Vedic Period (1000 to 600 B.C)

• Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda were compiled.

Aryan's Expansion

• Aryans expanded from Punjab to western Uttar Pradesh (Ganga Yamuna doab).

Bal Ganagadhar Tilak compiled the book: The Arctic Home in the Vedas (he said "all Indians were Aryans").

• Upper portion: Kuru & Middle part: Panchal

• Iron was used for the first time.

- Towards the later vedic period, they moved eastwards into the Gangetic plains. This expansion was facilitated by the use of iron tools and weapons, as well as horses.

Krishna/Shyam (black) Ayas (metal)

The iron age site named Tekwada is located in Maharashtra.

Agriculture

• It was the chief means of livelihood.

King also did manual labour in the field.

• Vrihi: Rice. · Godhuma: Wheat

Yava: Barley. Dhanya: Grains and Cereals

Political Organisation

• The political organizations became centralised.

Table: Columns: Sabha, Dominated by Brahmins; women participation not allowed now. Row 1. Sabha: Samiti. Dominated by Brahmins; women participation not allowed now: Same as before (early Vedic period). Row 2. Sabha: Vidhata. Dominated by Brahmins; women participation not allowed now: Disappeared during later Vedic period.

Society: Varna System

Table: Columns: Brahmans, Performed rituals/ sacrifices. Row 1. Brahmans: Kshatriya. Performed rituals/ sacrifices: Participated in war and protected people. Row 2. Brahmans: Vaishya. Performed rituals/ sacrifices: Conducts trade. Row 3. Brahmans: Sudra. Performed rituals/ sacrifices: They did manual work.

• Condition of women deteriorated.

- Varna system became hereditary and rigid.

• Go tra (clan) system emerged.

Marriage

• Anulom vivah: Boy from higher caste + girl from lower caste.

• Pratiloma vivah: Girl from higher caste + boy from lower caste.

Eight types of marriage were there:

Table: Columns: Brahma Vivah, Marriage within same Varna with Vedic rituals. Row 1. Brahma Vivah: Gandharva Vivah. Marriage within same Varna with Vedic rituals: Love marriage. Row 2. Brahma Vivah: Daiva Vivah. Marriage within same Varna with Vedic rituals: Father donates his daughter to priest as Dakshina. Row 3. Brahma Vivah: Arsha Vivah. Marriage within same Varna with Vedic rituals: Groom gives a cow and a bull to bride's father (as Gratitude gesture). Row 4. Brahma Vivah: Prajapati Vivah. Marriage within same Varna with Vedic rituals: Marriage without dowry. Row 5. Brahma Vivah: Asur Vivah. Marriage within same Varna with Vedic rituals: Marriage by purchase. Row 6. Brahma Vivah: Rakshasa Vivah. Marriage within same Varna with Vedic rituals: Marriage by abduction. Row 7. Brahma Vivah: Paishacha Vivah. Marriage within same Varna with Vedic rituals: In this type of marriage, a girl who is not in her senses is forcibly married off.

Religious Practices

• Other Gods like Rudra gained more importance while Indra and Agni lost their importance.

• Pushan (god of cattle) came to be regarded as God of Shudras.

Prajapati: Creator of Universe

• Idol worship gained importance.

• Animal sacrifice increased during this period.

• Different kind of Yajnas were performed such as:

Rajsuya Yajna: Performed for “Coronation”

Vajpeya Yajna: Performed after Rajsuya Yajna, also known as “Drink of Strength”

Ashwamedha Yajna: Performed for Territorial expansion.

Pottery

• Grey coloured potteries were seen here also known as P.G.W (painted grey ware).

Summary of Vedic Period

Image summary: A photo of an ancient earthen pot with a rounded body, a narrow neck, and a flared rim. The exterior is decorated with textured patterns, including geometric bands around the neck and organic or symbolic motifs on the body. This is an archaeological artifact used to demonstrate early pottery craftsmanship.

Table: Columns: Early Vedic Period, Later Vedic Period. Row 1. Early Vedic Period: Tribal Kinship. Later Vedic Period: Territorial Polity. Row 2. Early Vedic Period: Pastoral community. Later Vedic Period: Agriculturists. Row 3. Early Vedic Period: Better women condition. Later Vedic Period: Condition of women deteriorated. Row 4. Early Vedic Period: Varna system was based on profession and was not rigid. Later Vedic Period: Varna system became hereditary and rigid. Row 5. Early Vedic Period: No idol worship. Later Vedic Period: Idol worship started. Row 6. Early Vedic Period: Rigveda was compiled during this time. Later Vedic Period: Samveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda were compiled during this time. Row 7. The indigenous inhabitants described in Vedic texts as hostile, dark-skinned, and non-Vedic are referred to as Dasyus (or Dasas. Row 8. Parmar SSC.

History of South India

• According to historical evidence, South India did not experience a distinct Bronze Age and directly transitioned to Megalithic Age (also known as Iron Age in South India) where 'there was use of large stone.

• Time period: 2500 to 500 B.C

Structures found in India

The history of South India starts with Chera, Pandya and Chola Dynasty.

Image summary: A photograph of a prehistoric dolmen, consisting of large vertical stones supporting a heavy flat capstone. This megalithic structure serves as an ancient burial chamber or memorial.

Dolmen (Found in graves)

Pottery

- Black and red ware potteries were used.

{Community}

Image summary: A photo of a single, large, monolithic standing stone with a rounded top, positioned at the end of a light-colored path in a grassy field under a cloudy sky. It is a documentary photograph showing a prehistoric megalith.

Image summary: A photograph showing a collection of handcrafted terracotta pottery vessels of various shapes and sizes arranged on a dark surface. These include rounded pots and smaller bowls with contrasting light and dark tones, illustrating a variety of traditional ceramic forms.

• They belonged to pastoral community. They knew about agriculture but did not practise it.

Menhir

Sangam Age

(3rd Century B.C-3rd Century A.D)

• Meaning of the term 'Sangam': Assemblies.

• The area lying to the South of Krishna and Tungabhadra.

- A total of 3 Sangams were held and all were patronised by Pandyas

• Assemblies were held at: Tamil Nadu and were known as Muchchangam.

The assemblies were:

Table: Columns: Sangam, Places, Chairman. Row 1. Sangam: 1st. Places: Madurai. Chairman: Rishi Agastya. Row 2. Sangam: 2nd. Places: Kapadapuram. Chairman: Tolkappiyar. Row 3. Sangam: 3rd. Places: Madurai. Chairman: Nakkirar.

Sangam Literature

{They are in two forms:}

1. Narrative (story): They are collectively called Melkannakku leads to 18 major work.

E. g. Ethuthokai, Pattupattu

2. Didactic (poetic): They are collectively called Kilkanakku to 18 minor works (these are about Love (Akam) and War (Puram)). E.g. Tirukkural, Naladiyar and Inna Narpathu.

• Composed in Tamil language.

No text has been found from the 1st Sangam.

• Patinenmelkanakku: Collection of the oldest surviving Tamil poetry.

Tolkapiyyam is the earliest grammatical Tamil text composed by Tolkappiyar in 2nd Sangam.

{Epics written During this time}

• Silapathikaram: It is written by Ilango Adigal that tells a story about a young merchant Kovalan's marriage to the virtuous Kannagi and his love for the courtesan Madhavi.

• Manimekalai: It is written by Chithalai Chathanar which is an epic story of Kovalan and Madhavi's daughter Manimekalai.

{Geography:}

• Thinais: It refers to different types of landscape or geographical divisions of Tamil Nadu.

• Each Thinai had a chief called Muvendar (which was later divided into the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas).

Division of Thinais in five parts:

• Kurinci thinai: They engaged into hunting and gathering.

- Palai thinaí: They were cattle lifters and plunderers.

• Mullaí thinaí: They did animal husbandry.

• Marutam thinai: They engaged in agriculture.

- Neytal thinaí: They did fishing and salt collection.

Image summary: A dual-pane illustration showing two maps of southern India. The left map displays various ancient regional territories and kingdoms, including the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. The right map depicts the five "Thinais" or eco-zones—Kurinji, Palai, Mullai, Marutham, and Neytal—represented as concentric bands of different colors. Together, they illustrate the geographical and ecological classification of the ancient Tamil landscape.

Cheras

• They were ruling in Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu.

• Capital: Vanji/Vanchi/Karur

• Port cities: Muziris/Muchiris and Tondi {mainly for trading).

Emblem: Bow and Arrow

• Greatest Chera: Senguttuvan (He is also known as 'Red Chera')  he founded Pattini cult.

• They worshipped Kannagi (Goddess of purity and chastity to Pattini cult was related to this).

• Pugalar Inscription of Karur, Tamil Nadu mentions about them.

{Cholas}

• They were called as 'Cholamandalam' (Coromandels).

• Capital: Puhar and Uraiyur (alternate capital). Puhar is a port city and is also known as Kaveripattinam.

Emblem: Tiger

Earliest ruler: Elara

• Greatest ruler: Karikala (he fought Battle of Venni along the Kaveri river and also defeated the combined armies of Chera and Pandya).

• They traded in cotton cloth (from Uraiyur).

• They were known for their efficient Naval power.

Pandya

They ruled in Tamil Nadu.

• Capital: Madurai (on the banks of Vaigai river).

Emblem: Fish

• They were the first to be mentioned in Megasthenes book as “as being famous for their pearl trade”.

• Port city: Korkai

• They traded with Roman Empire.

Society

The society was divided into:

Table: Columns: Ruling Classes, Arasar. Row 1. Ruling Classes: Traders. Arasar: Vaishiyar. Row 2. Ruling Classes: Rich class. Arasar: Vellalar (rich landlords). Row 3. Ruling Classes: Lower class (landless labourers / slaves). Arasar: Kadaisiyar I Adimai. Row 4. Ruling Classes: Ordinary Ploughmen. Arasar: Uzhavur.

• Vattakirutal: A king defeated in a battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death.

• The king was assisted by a council of ministers known as “Aimperumkuzhu”.

- Women enjoyed a respectable position in society.

Table: The Periplus of Erythraean Sea (a Greek text) was written in the 1st Century AD..

Muvendavelan and Araiyar were titles of rich landowners.

Form of Government

• During the Sangam period hereditary monarchy was the form of government.

Jainism and Buddhism

{Cause of Origin}

• Opposition to Brahminical Dominance: Rejected the ritualistic interpretation of the Vedas and Brahminical supremacy.

• Agricultural Economy & Punch-Marked coins: Vedic animal sacrifices harmed the agrarian economy. Use of Punch-Marked Coins expanded, facilitated commercial growth due to which Vaishya got wealthy, funded and supported these religions as their peaceful nature favoured their trade.

• Varna System: Rejected birth-based social hierarchy, promoting equality. Jainism linked Varna to karma, not birth.

• Ahimsa (Non-violence): Both philosophies centred on the strict practice of non-violence.

• Kshatriya Leadership: Mahavira and Buddha were Kshatriyas, reflecting a reaction against Brahminical supremacy.

• Heterodox Philosophy: Rejected the infallibility and authority of the Vedas, unlike orthodox traditions.

• Concept of God: Neither believes in a Supreme Creator. Jainism believes in divine figures, while early Buddhism is entirely agnostic regarding a creator.

Jainism

• In Jainism, Tirthankaras are considered to be great teachers.

There are total 24 Tirthankaras.

Table: Columns: No., Names, Birth Place, Represented By. Row 1. No.: 1st. Names: Rishabh Dev (Adinath). Birth Place: Ayodhya. Represented By: Bull. Row 2. No.: 22nd. Names: Arishtanemi (Neminath). Birth Place: Sauripura. Represented By: Conch (Shankh). Row 3. No.: 23rd. Names: Parshavnath. Birth Place: Varanasi. Represented By: Serpent. Row 4. No.: 24th. Names: Vardhaman Mahavir (Naya Putta). Birth Place: Kundagram (Vaishali). Represented By: Lion.

• In Vedas, only two Tirthankaras are mentioned: Rishabh Dev (1st) and Arishtanemi (22nd).

Vardhaman Mahavir

Birth (540 B.C): Kundagram (Vaishali; Bihar).

• Death (468 B.C): Pavapuri (Bihar); at the age of 72 years.

• Father: Siddhartha (Clan: Jnatrika; he was a Kshatriya).

Wife: Yashoda

• Daughter: Priyadarshana (Anojja) was married to Jamali (The first disciple of Mahavir).

- Mahavir left home at the age of 30 years; along with Makkhali Gosala.

• Enlightenment: At the age of 42 years; under a Sal tree at Jambhikagrama near river Rijupalika and in the field of a householder named Samaga.

• First Sermon at: Rajgir (Bihar)

Terms related to Jainism

Table: Columns: Moksha, Salvation / Release from the cycle of rebirth. Row 1. Moksha: Kaivalya. Salvation / Release from the cycle of rebirth: Enlightenment. Row 2. Moksha: Asrava. Salvation / Release from the cycle of rebirth: Inflow of karmic practices. Row 3. Moksha: Basadis. Salvation / Release from the cycle of rebirth: Jain monasteries. Row 4. Moksha: Kevalin. Salvation / Release from the cycle of rebirth: Perfectly learned. Row 5. Moksha: Jina. Salvation / Release from the cycle of rebirth: Jina is a being who has achieved enlightenment and is liberated from cycle of rebirth..

Ajivika Sect

• Founder: Makkhali Gosala

• This sect believed in extreme fatalism (fate) and asceticism (living extreme form of life by abstinence from worldly pleasure).

{Jain Philosophy}

Triratnas

• Three principles to achieve Moksha:

Table: Columns: K, Right Knowledge (Samyaka Jnana). Row 1. K: F. Right Knowledge (Samyaka Jnana): Right Faith (Samyaka Darshana). Row 2. K: C. Right Knowledge (Samyaka Jnana): Right Conduct (Samyaka Charitra).

Table: Columns: Ahimsa, Non-violence. Row 1. Ahimsa: Satya. Non-violence: Truthfulness. Row 2. Ahimsa: Asteya. Non-violence: Non-stealing. Row 3. Ahimsa: Aparigraha. Non-violence: Non-possession/Non-attachment. Row 4. Ahimsa: Brahmacharya. Non-violence: Celibacy/Chastity.

{Note}

• Lord Mahavira added the fifth vow (vrata) of Brahmacharya to the four existing vows (Chaturyama Dharma) propounded by his predecessor, Parshvanatha.

Division among Jains

• Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu (A Jain Monk) left Magadha for Karnataka due to severe famine in Magadha and settled in Shravanabelagola, (Chandragiri hills, Karnataka) where Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism. He eventually undertook Sallekhana (ritual fasting) and passed away.

- Another group of Jains chose to remain in Magadha under the leadership of Sthulabhadra. Overtime, differences arose between these two groups.

• The followers of Bhadrabahu, who migrated to the South, adhered to strict ascetic practises, including nudity as a mark of renunciation, and came to be known as Digambaras (sky-clad).

• On the other hand, the Jains who stayed in Magadha, led by Sthulabhadra, adopted more liberal monastic rules, permitting monks to wear white clothes. This group became known as Shwetambaras (white-clad).

1st Jain Council

Leader: Sthulabhadra

Place: Pataliputra

• Time period: 298 B.C

2nd Jain Council

Time Period: 512 A.D

Place: Valabhi, Gujarat • Text: 12 Angas were compiled.

• Patronised by: Chandragupta Maurya

Sanghabhuti, an Indian Buddhists who travelled to China at the end 4th century A.D, was the author of a commentary on: Sarvastivada Vinaya.

Important Books of Jains

• Bhagavati sutra (mentions about Mahajanapadas)

• Tattvartha/Tattvarthadhigama Sutra (written by Acharya Umaswati): First book in Jain philosophy

Umaswati): First book in Jain philosophy.

• Agam sutra (sacred books of Jain religion)

• Kalpa sutra

Jain texts:

• Parishishtaparvan

• Bhadrabahu boycotted 1st Jain Council.

• Jain literature is written in Prakrit language

• Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana (or Mahapurana).

• Uttaradhyayana Sutra (known for its verses on monk conduct, sermons and poetic teachings).

Architecture

• Statue of Rishabh Dev (Statue of Ahimsa) is 108 ft tall, located at Mangi Tungi in Nashik, Maharashtra.

• Statue of Gommateshwara Bahubali (son of Rishabh Dev) is 57 ft tall, located in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka, where Mahamastakabhisheka festival is celebrated every 12 years.

Image summary: A photograph of a large, monolithic stone statue of a male figure standing upright on a pedestal. The statue is carved from a single piece of rock and is positioned in an open-air setting with architectural structures in the background. It is a depiction of a religious or historical figure, serving as a monument.

Table: Columns: Architecture, Places. Row 1. Architecture: Rock Cut Cave Temples. Places: Odisha. Row 2. Architecture: Hathigumpha Caves. Places: Odisha, Kharavela. Row 3. Architecture: Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves. Places: Odisha. Row 4. Architecture: Dilwara Jain Temple. Places: Rajasthan (Mount Abu). Row 5. Architecture: Statue of Gomateshwara/ Bahubali. Places: Karnataka, Shravanabelagola. Row 6. Architecture: Ellora Caves. Places: Maharashtra. Row 7. Architecture: Khajuraho. Places: Madhya Pradesh.

Buddhism

The founder of Buddhism was Gautam Buddha.

Gautam Buddha (563 B.C-483 B.C)

- He belonged to: Shakya Clan.

- He was also known as Shakyamuni, Tathagat.

- Birth: Lumbini, Nepal

• Death: Kushinagara, Uttar Pradesh

• Childhood name: Siddhartha

Father: Suddhodhana (Kshatriya)

Mother: Mahamaya (belonged to Koliya tribe).

• Step-mother: Mahaprajapati Goutami (first Bhikkhuni)

Wife: Yashodhara

• Son: Rahul

• Buddha left home at the age of 29 years.

• First teacher: Alara Kalama, Second teacher: Udraka Ramputra

• Enlightenment: At the age of 35 years, Uruvela (Bodh Gaya); under a boh-dee tree (peepal tree) for 49 days near river Niranjana.

• First sermon: Sarnath; Varanasi

• Buddha Purnima is observed to commemorate the birth, enlightenment, and death of Buddha.

• Gautam Buddha is considered as “Light of Asia”.

Aniconic (symbolic) forms of Buddha

In early Buddhism, the Gautama Buddha was not depicted in human form but through symbols such as:

Empty throne (seat)

• Footprints (Buddhapada)

• Dharma Chakra (wheel)

• boh-dee tree

• Stupa

Disciples of Gautam Buddha:

• Sariputta

• Moggallana

Mahakasyapa

• Upali

• Ananda

• Subhuti

Buddha's Birth

Image summary: A diagram composed of five circular icons arranged around a central image of the Buddha. Each icon represents a key event in the Buddha's life: the Stupa, Buddha's Birth (lotus flower), Great Departure (horse), First Sermon (dharmachakra wheel), and Mahaparinirvana (reclining Buddha). The arrangement serves to illustrate the primary milestones of the Buddha's life cycle.

First Sermon

Important Symbols of Buddha's Life

Table: Columns: Terms, Meaning, Symbol. Row 1. Terms: Janma. Meaning: Birth. Symbol: Lotus/ Bull. Row 2. Terms: Nirvana. Meaning: Enlightenment. Symbol: Bodhi tree. Row 3. Terms: Dharmachakrapravartana. Meaning: First Sermon. Symbol: Wheel. Row 4. Terms: Maha bhinishkramana. Meaning: House renunciation (Great departure). Symbol: Horse (Kanthak). Row 5. Terms: Parinirvana/Mahaparinirvana. Meaning: Death. Symbol: Stupa.

Great Donarturo

Enlightenment

Philosophy of Buddhism

There are four noble truths:

1. The truth of suffering.

2. The truth of the cause of suffering that is, desire.

3. The truth of the end of suffering.

4. The truth of the path to the end of suffering that is Eight Fold.

Eight Fold Path or Ashtangika Marga

It is followed to end sufferings.

• Right mindfulness

• Right view

• Right concentration

• Right action

• Right livelihood

• Right intention

• Right speech

• Right effort

Triratnas of Buddhism

• Buddha

• Dhamma

• Sangha (community of monks)

Mudras of the Buddha: A Guide to Enlightenment

Image summary: A photograph of a small, metallic statue of a seated Buddha with hands held in a prayer position. The figure is positioned on a carved lotus base, depicting a traditional Buddhist icon for devotional or artistic purposes.

Image summary: A photo of a golden Buddhist statue depicting a figure in a seated meditation pose with one hand raised in a mudra gesture and a halo behind the head. It is a representational image of a religious figure, with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A photograph of a seated Buddha statue on a decorative lotus pedestal, with the figure wearing a blue robe and red trousers. It is a depiction of a religious icon, with no data or analytical result to report.

Dharmachakra Mudra "Teaching Wheel" Represents the Buddha's teachings

Varad Mudra "Generosity" Represents giving and compassion.

Abhaya Mudra "Fearless" Signifies protection and overcoming fear.

Buddhist Councils

Image summary: A photograph of a golden Buddha statue seated in a meditative pose on a lotus base. It is a descriptive image of a religious figure with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A photograph of a gold-colored Buddha statue seated in a meditative posture on a lotus base. The figure is draped in a red robe over one shoulder and is depicted with a serene expression and a traditional ushnisha atop the head. It is a representative religious image.

Image summary: A photograph of a seated Buddha figurine in a meditative pose with one hand raised in a gesture of reassurance. The figure is adorned in a blue and red robe and rests upon a decorative lotus pedestal. It is an artistic depiction for illustrative purposes, with no data or analytical result to report.

Table: Columns: Buddhist Council, Place, Patronage, Presidency. Row 1. Buddhist Council: 1 raised to st. Place: Rajgriha (400 BC/483 BC). Patronage: Ajatshatru. Presidency: Mahakashyapa. Row 2. Buddhist Council: 2 raised to nd. Place: Vaishali (383 BC). Patronage: Kalashoka. Presidency: Sabakami. Row 3. Buddhist Council: 3 raised to rd. Place: Pataliputra (250 BC). Patronage: Ashoka. Presidency: Moggaliputta Tissa. Row 4. Buddhist Council: 4 raised to th. Place: Kashmir (72 AD); Kundalvana. Patronage: Kanishka. Presidency: Vasumitra.

Dhyana Mudra "Meditation" Signifies contemplation and inner peace.

Bhumisparsha Mudra "Touching the Earth" Represents the Buddha's enlightenment.

Vitarka Mudra "Wheel of Law" Represents reasoned discussion and the transmission of Buddhist teachings.

• In 4th Buddhist Council, Buddhism was divided into two sects: Mahayana and Hinayana.

Sects of Buddhism

Table: Columns: Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana. Row 1. Hinayana: They do not believe in idol worship. Mahayana: They believe in idol worship. Vajrayana: Tantric Buddhism (In the East Asia). Row 2. Hinayana: Text: Pali. Mahayana: Text: Sanskrit. Vajrayana: Roots: Tibet. Row 3. Hinayana: They do not believe in rebirth of Buddha. Mahayana: They believe in rebirth of Buddha. Row 4. Hinayana: Seen mostly in: Southern India, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, etcetera. Mahayana: Seen mostly in: Japan, China, South Korea. Vajrayana: Seen mostly in: Sikkim, West Bengal, Nepal, Tibet, East Asia.

Theravada Buddhism: A subtype of Hinayana Buddhism

- Meaning: Theravada = "Doctrine of the Elders" Thera (Senior Monk) + Vada (Doctrine)

- Origin: India

- Theras: Senior Buddhist Monks

- Theris: Senior Buddhist Nuns

Buddhist Texts

Tripitaka / Pali Canon

• Sutta Pitaka: Collection of the Buddha's teachings, sermons, and dialogues

• It was compiled by Ananda.

Pitaka meaning: Basket

- It is divided into five parts, known as Nikayas.

4. Anguttara Nikaya

1. Digha Nikaya

2. Majjhima Nikaya

3. Samyutta Nikaya

5. Khuddaka Nikaya

- Vinaya Pitaka: Monastic courts and rules.

- Abhidhamma Pitaka: Interpretation of Sutta Pitaka and philosophical matters.

Dhammapada, a Buddhist text, is called the “Gita of Buddhism” for its importance and teachings. It is a part of the Khuddaka Nikaya.

Literature In Pali language

• Milindpanho: Dialogue between Milinda and Nagasena (a Buddhist monk).

Visuddhimagga: Written by Buddhaghosa.

• Nettipakarana

• Dipavamsa

Literature In Sanskrit Language - Mahavamsa

• Buddhacharita: Buddha's biography by Ashvaghosha.

- Jataka Tales: It is about previous births of Buddha in both human and animal forms.

- Avadanasataka

• Arya Manjushri mula kalpa

Bodhisattvas

Divyavadana

• A Bodhisattva is a being who seeks enlightenment (boh-dee) not just for themselves, but for the benefit of all sentient beings. The concept is centered to Mahayana Buddhism, where Bodhisattvas delay their own Nirvana to help others attain liberation.

Important Bodhisattvas :

Padmapani: A bodhisattva who is also known as Avalokiteshvara.

• Vajrapani: A bodhisattva who is a protector and a guide.

• Manjusri: A bodhisattva who represents wisdom and is considered the Buddha-to-be.

• Amitabh: A bodhisattva who represents light.

Table: Columns: Terms, Meaning. Row 1. Terms: Chaitya. Meaning: Place of worship. Row 2. Terms: Vihara. Meaning: Place of residence. Row 3. Terms: Dhamma. Meaning: Dharma. Row 4. Terms: Stupa. Meaning: Mount where the relics of Buddha have been placed.

Buddhist Stupas

Table: Columns: Stupas, Places. Row 1. Stupas: Kesariya. Places: Bihar (Largest Stupa in India). Row 2. Stupas: Dhamek. Places: Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh (Cylindrical Shape). Row 3. Stupas: Ramabhar. Places: Kushinagara, Uttar Pradesh. Row 4. Stupas: Sanchi. Places: Madhya Pradesh (Oldest Stupa in India). Row 5. Stupas: Shanti. Places: Ladakh (White in colour). Row 6. Stupas: Chir Tope (Dharmarajika). Places: Taxila, Pakistan. Row 7. Stupas: Piprahwa. Places: Uttar Pradesh (First built by Sakya Dynasty). Row 8. Stupas: Bharhut. Places: Madhya Pradesh. Row 9. Stupas: Borobudur. Places: Java, Indonesia (Largest Stupa in the world).

Image summary: A landscape painting depicting a large, tiered earthen mound or pyramid with multiple concentric levels, situated in a grassy area near a river and a distant settlement. The image serves as a visual reconstruction of an ancient structure to illustrate its scale and form.

Image summary: A photograph of a stone stupa, featuring a large hemispherical dome topped with a square platform and a small spire, all enclosed by a low stone railing. It is a photo of an ancient Buddhist monument, used to depict historical religious architecture.

Important Monasteries

• Ladakh: Thiksey, Hemis, Alchi Gompa

• Himachal Pradesh: Kye Gompa

• Sikkim: Rumtek

• Guntapalle Buddhists Caves (Andhra Pradesh) built by Buddhists monks during the rule of Satavahanas.

Bagh Caves: Madhya Pradesh

Kesariya Stupa

Amravati Stupa

Built by: Ashoka

Excavated by: K. K. Muhammed Discovered by: Colin Mackenzie in 1814

Further works done by: Gupta Dynasty

Built by: Satavahanas

Location: Andhra Pradesh Discovered by: Colin Mackenzie in 1797.

Eight holy places of Buddhism

• Lumbini • Rajgir

· Bodh Gaya · Vaishali

• Sarnath • Shravasti

• Kushinagara · Sankosia

Namdroling Monastery

(a Buddhist Monastery)

is located in Bylakuppe,

Karnataka is also known as "The Golden Temple".

The term Sramanas (or Shramanas) refers to the wandering ascetics or monks in ancient India who renounced worldly life to pursue spiritual liberation through practices like meditation, austerity, and ethical living. They were often associated with non-Vedic traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism.

Sanchi Stupa

- It is the oldest Stupa of India built by King Ashoka in 3rd Century B.C.

• The enlargement of Stupa was done using Sandstone by Shunga Dynasty.

• It has four Gateways which represents cardinal points to North, South, West and East direction. They were added by Satavahanas.

• First discovered by: Henry Taylor in 1818.

Chethiyagiri festival is celebrated at Sanchi.

• Relics of two important disciples of Buddha to Sariputta and Moggallana are kept here.

Image summary: A labeled photograph of a Buddhist stupa identifying its key architectural components. The structure consists of an Anda (dome) topped by a Harmika (railed pavilion) with a Yasti (spire) and Chattra (umbrella), while the base features a Medhi supporting a Pradakshina patha (circumambulatory path) and is accessed via a Torana (arched gateway). The point is to define the specific anatomical parts of a traditional stupa.

Parts of a Stupa

• Anda: Hemispherical dome

Torana: Gateway

• Medhi: "Processional / Ambulatory Path

• Vedika: Railings

• Pradakshina patha: A circular path around stupa where devotees walk around.

Image summary: A photograph of an ornate, ancient stone gateway featuring intricate carvings of figures, animals, and geometric patterns across multiple horizontal tiers. The structure is highly decorative and serves as a monumental architectural entrance.

• The Yakshi is a female nature spirit symbolizing fertility, abundance, and prosperity.

• It appears on Sanchi Stupa Toranas as guardian and auspicious figure.

Anatta: It is the Buddhist doctrine that a permanent soul or self does not exist.

Image summary: A photo of a seated Buddhist statue atop a pedestal, featuring a figure in traditional robes with a topknot. It is an image of a historical artifact, with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A stone relief carving depicting a central female figure seated in a relaxed pose, flanked by two elephants facing each other above her. The scene is framed by architectural pillars on the sides, depicting a symbolic or religious motif.

Torana

Hariti A blood thirsty yakshi converted by Buddha to a benevolent maternal figure.

Gaj Lakshmi A yakshi surrounded by lotuses and elephants.

Didarganj Yakshi

A female statue with polished stone found in Patna, Bihar. Right now preserved in the Patna museum. Its right hand holds a fly whisk called “Chauri” and the lower garment is called “Antari”.

Image summary: A stone sculpture depicting a standing female figure, likely a yakshini, leaning against a tree while holding a branch above her head. This is a traditional Indian sculptural motif used to represent nature and fertility.

Image summary: Three views of a small, carved female figurine from the front, side, and back. The figure is depicted wearing a long garment with a distinct waist and draped folds, showing a stylized human form. This is a photograph of an artifact, meant to document its physical appearance from multiple angles.

Image summary: A photo of an ancient stone sculpture depicting a seated figure in a meditative pose with hands joined in prayer, set within an arched backplate and resting on a tiered pedestal. It is a religious artifact, serving as a devotional object.

Mahajanapadas

• Aryans are considered the most powerful tribes during the Vedic period, and gradually transitioned to “Mahajanapadas” (great kingdoms) by the end of later Vedic Period. By forming territorial units called “Janapadas”.

• Aryans lived in the land known as “Sapta Sindhu”.

Aryans to Tribes to Jana to Janapadas to Mahajanapadas

{consolidation of Jana (Aryans)}

• Total: 16 Mahajanapadas

Salabhanjika Yakshi Reference to mother of Buddha (Maya) under sala tree giving birth to Buddha

Prajnaparamita Yakshi Female deity in Buddhism, source of omniscience of all Buddhas and mother of all Buddhas

Sources

• Texts: Ashtadhyayi (in Sanskrit) written by Panini (oldest book on Sanskrit Grammar written in 600 B.C to 300 B.C).

Buddhist Literature

• Anguttara Nikaya (In it 16 Mahajanapadas are mentioned).

• Digha Nikaya (In it 12 Mahajanapadas are mentioned).

Jain Literature

- Bhagavati Sutra.

- Mahajanapadas were either Monarchial (single decision makers) or Republic (multiple decision makers), also known as oligarchy.

• The following Mahajanapadas were Republic to Kuru, Kamboja, Vajji, Malla.

Table: Columns: Mahajanpadas, Capital & River. Row 1. Mahajanpadas: Anga. Capital & River: Champa (Ganga). Row 2. Mahajanpadas: Magadh. Capital & River: Rajagir/ Pataliputra (Ganga & Son). Row 3. Mahajanpadas: Kasi. Capital & River: Varanasi (Gomti). Row 4. Mahajanpadas: Vatsa. Capital & River: Kausambi (Ganga). Row 5. Mahajanpadas: Kosala. Capital & River: Sravasti / Ayodhya (Sarayu). Row 6. Mahajanpadas: Surasena. Capital & River: Mathura (Yamuna). Row 7. Mahajanpadas: Panchala. Capital & River: Ahichchhatra / Kampilya (Ganga). Row 8. Mahajanpadas: Kuru. Capital & River: Indraprastha (Yamuna). Row 9. Mahajanpadas: Matsya. Capital & River: Viratnagar (Yamuna). Row 10. Mahajanpadas: Chedi/Chetiya. Capital & River: Sothivati/ Banda (Ken & Betwa). Row 11. Mahajanpadas: Avanti. Capital & River: Ujjain (North)/ Mahismati (South) (Kshipra & Narmada). Row 12. Mahajanpadas: Gandhar. Capital & River: Taxila (Indus). Row 13. Mahajanpadas: Kamboj. Capital & River: Pooncha (Kabul & Kurram). Row 14. Mahajanpadas: Asmaka/Assaka. Capital & River: Pratishtan/ Paithan/ Potana (Godavari). Row 15. Mahajanpadas: Vajji. Capital & River: Vaishali (Gandak). Row 16. Mahajanpadas: Malla. Capital & River: Kusinara (Sarayu).

• Vajji consisted of eight clans and three of them were the most powerful kingdoms to Jnatrika, Videha, Lichchavi.

Image summary: A map of the Indian subcontinent around 500 BCE depicting the Mahajanapadas and janapadas. The map labels numerous regional states and kingdoms, such as Magadha, Kosala, Avanti, and Vatsa, across the northern and central plains, with the Achaemenid Empire bordering the northwest. The map illustrates the fragmented political landscape of early ancient India before the rise of a centralized empire.

• In the beginning Kasi was the most powerful

Mahajanapada followed by Kosala then Magadha became the most powerful one.

Factors Contributing to the Rise of Mahajanapadas

• Use of Iron: Iron tools increased agricultural productivity and supported larger population.

• Urbanisation: Growth of cities like Rajagriha, Vaishali, Varanasi, Ujjain, Taxila.

• Rise of trade: Trade got boosted due to trade route and these routes were started to get controlled.

• Decline of Tribal polity: As the population grew, there was a need to set permanent boundaries.

• Strong military Organisation: To solve conflicts over fertile land armies need to be organized.

• Social Stratification (Varna System): Varna system supported the emergences of Kshatriya who controlled territories.

• Geographical Factors: Ganga plain had fertile alluvial soil which gave more productivity in agriculture.

Reasons for the Rise of Magadha

• Its advantageous position  situated south of Ganga.

• The capital Rajgriha was surrounded by five hills and Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of Ganga and Son.

• The availability of large number of elephants (as it was marshy-doab region).

• It had many great leaders.

• Availability of Iron mines (in Jharkhand region).

Dynasties That Ruled Magadha

{Haryanka Dynasty}

Bimbisara (544 B.C-492 B.C)

Title: Seniya

• He led military campaign against Anga.

He had three wives:

- Kosala Devi to Sister of Prasenjit (son of Kosala King)

- Chellana (Lichchavi princess)

- Khema goes to Madra Clan (Punjab)

• He sent physician 'jivaka' to Ujjain king Pradyota, who was suffering from jaundice.

Ajatshatru

He was the son of Chellana and Bimbisara.

He established Patliputra.

• He introduced advanced military tech including the Mahashilakantaka (a giant catapult) and Rathmoosai (a scythe chariot)

Image summary: An illustration of a historical catapult, depicting a large wooden machine with a throwing arm holding a rock and a person standing beside it. It shows the mechanical structure used to launch projectiles.

• He conquered Lichchavi and Vaishali.

• He defeated Kosala King and married to his daughter.

He patronised the 1st Buddhist Council.

He later killed his father Bimbisara.

• He was contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira.

Udayin

• He shifted the capital temporarily from Rajgriha to Patliputra (now: “Patna”).

Shishunaga Dynasty

• Founder: Shishunaga

- Shishunaga defeated Nagadasaka, the last ruler of the Haryanka Dynasty.

• He defeated Avanti and merged it with Magadha.

- Kalashoka, the second ruler of the Shishunaga dynasty, permanently shifted the capital to Pataliputra and patronized the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.

Mahapadmananda

Nanda Dynasty

He was the founder of Nanda dynasty.

• Title taken: Ekarat (Sole Sovereign) and Sarvakshatrantaka (Destroyer of all Kshatriyas).

Dhananada

Alexander invaded India during his reign (326 B.C).

• He introduced “Nandopakramani”, a measuring unit

In the battle of

Hydaspes Alexander defeated Porus on the banks of Hydaspes

(Jhelum) in 326 B.C.

- He was the last king of Nanda Dynasty.

Pottery

• Northern black polished wares (N.B.P.W) were used for pottery.

Image summary: A photograph of a dark-colored, ancient-style ceramic vessel featuring a wide bowl on a small pedestal base with two high, looping vertical handles. It is a documentary image of an artifact, with no data or analytical result to report.

Coins

Punch-marked coins made of silver were used as the form of money for trade purposes.

• Gold coins such as Nishka and Satmana were also used.

Trade

• Artisans and merchants formed associations called Shrenis (Guilds) that were collectively referred to as Nigama.

Craft and Architecture

• Craft was hereditary.

• Iron ploughshare played a crucial role in the empire's agricultural success (second urbanization after Harappa).

Terms

Table: Columns: Terms, Meaning. Row 1. Terms: Bhojaka/ Gramabhojaka. Meaning: Village Headman. Row 2. Terms: Gahapatis. Meaning: Wealthy property owners, who employed Slaves or Hired Labourers. Row 3. Terms: Shaulkika/Shulkadhyaksha. Meaning: Toll-tax collecting officers. Row 4. Terms: Bhaga. Meaning: Tax (1/6th of produced). Row 5. Terms: Bali. Meaning: Voluntary Offerings to the king.

Maurya Dynasty

Sources for the Mauryan Empire

• Kautilya's Arthashastra:

- —Arthashastra describes the administration and state policies of Mauryan Empire during Chandragupta Maurya's time.

- Consists of 15 books, called "Adhikaranas"; first 5 books were based on "Tantra" - internal administration and next 8 books were on "Avapa" - interstate relation, last 2 books were miscellaneous.

Chanakya is often compared with Italian Renaissance writer - Niccolo Machiavelli (author of Prince)

• Vishakhadatta Mudrarakshasa: It is a Sanskrit play that narrates the ascent of emperor Chandragupta Maurya to power in India. This play describes he belonged to lower caste.

• Indica written by Megasthenes: It includes all the detailed account of how things were run in Mauryan Empire.

• Buddhist Literature: Jataka tales, Dipavamsa/Mahavamsa, Divyadana.

• Archeological Evidence: Pillar edicts, Rock edicts.

• Wooden architecture of Chandragupta Maurya found at Bulandi Bagh and Kumhrar, discovered by L. A. Waddell.

{Chandragupta Maurya} (322 B.C-298 B.C)

• He was the founder of Mauryan Dynasty and ascended the throne by defeating the last ruler of Nanda Dynasty Dhanananda, with the help of Kautilya (also known as Chanakya/Vishnugupta) in 322 B.C.E.

• The Vishnu Purana, explicitly connects Chandragupta to the Nanda dynasty through his mother, Mura, a Shudra concubine of Dhanananda.

Son: Bindusara.

• He built a department “Kosthagara”: For storage of grains (mentioned in Sohgaura: Copper Plate inscription in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh)

• He defeated Seleucus Nicator (General & Successor Alexander).

About Seleucus Nicator

• Seleucus Nicator founded Seleucid Dynasty (member of Macedonian Greek Dynasty) ruling in Northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.

• Megasthenes was in the court of Seleucus Nicator.

• Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus Nicator and married to his daughter Helena.

Bindusara (297 B.C-273 B.C)

• He is also known as Amitrochates" (destroyer of enemies) by the Greek.

- He asked for sweet wine, dry figs and a philosopher from Antiochus I of Syria.

• He is known for conquering the land between the two seas, extending the Mauryan Empire up to the southern tip of India.

• He patronised Ajivikas.

• He was visited by Greek ambassador ightarrow Deimachus.

- Mother: Durdhara

• Son: Ashoka.

{Ashoka} (268 B.C-232 B.C)

• Ashoka ascended the throne with the help of Radhagupta (Minister).

• During his father's reign, Ashoka was governor of Taxila and Ujjain.

- He fought Kalinga War with Raja Anantha

- Padmanabha, the ruler of the independent kingdom of Kalinga in 261 B.C, 7 years after his coronation.

• He replaced Berighosha (physical conquest) with Dhammagosha (cultural conquest) after the Kalinga War.

- He sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon (now known as Sri Lanka) to spread Buddhism.

• He was succeeded by Dashrath Maurya (grandson of Ashoka).

Ashokan Edict

• Edicts of Ashoka are found in Rocks and Pillars.

• There are 14 Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka meaning a maximum of 14 lines are engraved in Rocks.

• William Jones.

• James Princep was the 1st to decipher Ashokan inscriptions in 1837.

Major Rock Edicts

• Total: 14

• Total languages: 3 (Prakrit, Greek, Aramaic)

• Total scripts used: 4 (Brahmi, Kharosthi, Greek, Aramaic)

• Most inscriptions were in: Prakrit language in Brahmi script

• Script used in Afghanistan: Greek and Aramaic

• Script used in Northwestern parts of India: Kharosthi

Ashoka's Dhamma was inspired by the Buddhist

“Upashaka Dhamma”, which refers to the Buddhist teaching for laymen.

• In Ashoka's Greek and Aramic inscriptions no reference to teaching of Buddha was found but in his Brahmi Khrosth, and Prakrit inscription Buddhism was mentioned.

• In inscriptions he is mentioned as: Devanami Piyadassi (Meaning: Devon ka Priya to Beloved of God)

10 Places where Ashokan Rock Edicts have been Found

1. Kandahar Bilingual Inscription leads to Kandahar, Afghanistan

2. Shahbazgarhi in Kharoshthi script  Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

3. Mansehra Rock Edicts  Mansehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan

4. Kalsi goes to Dehradun, Uttarakhand

5. Girnar leads to Gujarat (14 lines are inscribed in Girnar major Rock Edicts).

6. Sopara leads to Maharashtra

7. Dhauli goes to Bhubaneshwar, Odisha

8. Jaugada to Odisha

9. Sannati goes to Karnataka

10. Yerragudi goes to Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh

: Image summary: A map of ancient India and surrounding regions showing the distribution of Ashoka's edicts. Major rock edicts are marked by black squares, pillar edicts by black triangles, and minor rock edicts by white squares, all contained within a dashed line representing the territorial limits. The map illustrates the wide geographical spread of these inscriptions across the empire, serving to demonstrate the extent of Ashoka's administrative and ideological influence.

Table: Row 1: 14th Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka. Row 2: ** Edict 1, Prohibits animal slaughter. Ban festive gatherings and the killing of animals. Only two peacocks and one deer were killed in Ashoka's kitchen. He wished to discontinue this practice also.. Row 3: Edict 2, Providing care for man and animals describes Chola, Pandaya, kingdoms of south India.. Row 4: Edict 3, Generosity to Brahmans.. Row 5: ** Edict 4, Dhammaghosa over bherighosa.. Row 6: Edict 5, Concerns over policy towards slaves.. Row 7: Edict 6, Welfare measures. Row 8: ** Edict 7, Requests tolerance for all religions. Row 9: Edict 8, Describes Ashoka's first Dhammayatra to Bodh Gaya and Bodhi tree. Row 10: Edict 9, Condemns popular ceremonies. Stress on ceremonies of dhamma.. Row 11: Edict 10, Condemns the desire for fame and glory. It stresses the popularity of Dhamma.. Row 12: Edict 11, Elaborates dhamma..

Table: Columns: ** Edict 12, Directed and determined requests for tolerance among different religious sects.. Row 1. ** Edict 12: ** Edict 13. Directed and determined requests for tolerance among different religious sects.: Ashoka's victory over Kalinga (old name of Odisha). Row 2. ** Edict 12: Edict 14. Directed and determined requests for tolerance among different religious sects.: Describes engraving of inscriptions in different parts of the country..

14 Rock Edicts and Inscriptions of Ashoka (**are important)

Minor Rock Edicts

- Minor Rock edict 1 provides the evidence of gradual religious transformation of Ashoka to Buddhism.

• Four Edicts where Ashoka has been mentioned by his name. These four are:

- Maski leads to Karnataka

- Nettur  Karnataka

- Brahmagiri to Karnataka

- Gujjara implies Madhya Pradesh

Image summary: A photograph of a Minor Rock Edict attributed to Ashoka, showing an ancient stone inscription. A magnified inset highlights a specific section of the text, with a translation provided above that reads "Beloved to Gods, that Ashoka." The image serves to document the historical script and its translated meaning.

Name "Ashoka" mentioned in Maski Stone slab

• Maski Ashoka inscription was discovered by C. Beadon.

Table: Columns: Aspect, Major Rock Edicts (MREs), Minor Rock Edicts (MiREs). Row 1. Aspect: Number. Major Rock Edicts (MREs): 14. Minor Rock Edicts (MiREs): 15 to 16. Row 2. Aspect: Date. Major Rock Edicts (MREs): Middle Phase of Ashoka's reign (257 BCE). Minor Rock Edicts (MiREs): Later phase of Ashoka reign. Row 3. Aspect: Length & detail. Major Rock Edicts (MREs): Long, Detailed and Systematic. Minor Rock Edicts (MiREs): Short, Brief and Personal. Row 4. Aspect: Content focus. Major Rock Edicts (MREs): Dhamma, Governance, Social welfare, Religious tolerance, Administration. Minor Rock Edicts (MiREs): Buddhism. Row 5. Aspect: Tone. Major Rock Edicts (MREs): Imperial and Administrative. Minor Rock Edicts (MiREs): Personal and Confessional. Row 6. Aspect: Historical importance. Major Rock Edicts (MREs): Full philosophy of Ashokan Dhamma. Minor Rock Edicts (MiREs): Ashoka's Conversion to Buddhism. Row 7. Aspect: Language & script. Major Rock Edicts (MREs): Prakrit (Brahmi), in North west Prakrit (Kharoshthi). Minor Rock Edicts (MiREs): Prakrit (Brahmi). Row 8. Aspect: Geographical spread. Major Rock Edicts (MREs): Entire Mauryan Empire. Minor Rock Edicts (MiREs): Central and southern India. Row 9. Aspect: Examples. Major Rock Edicts (MREs): Girnar, Kalsi, Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra. Minor Rock Edicts (MiREs): Maski, Bairat, Gujjara, Siddhpura.

Pillar Edicts

- Total: 7 (meaning: 7 lines)

Delhi Topra Pillar Edict

• It comprises all the 7 Ashokan Pillar Edicts and the 7th Edict is considered as the longest amongst them all.

• Only one language (Prakrit) and only one script (Brahmi) is used.

Image summary: A labeled photograph of an ancient column highlighting its architectural components from top to bottom: the capital, the abacus, the inverted lotus, and the shaft. The image serves as a diagram to identify the specific structural parts of this column style.

- Delhi Topra Pillar was transferred from Haryana to in Delhi by Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

• The painted illustration of the moving of the Ashoka Pillar at Topra is found in Sirat-i-Firuz Shahi.

Ashoka Pillar, Sarnath

• It was adopted as the National Emblem on 26th Jan 1950.

• Here, Ashoka commemorated the first Sermon of Buddha.

• Animals: Lion, Elephants,

Horse, Bull

Image summary: A photograph of a stone sculpture of a bull standing on a decorative, fluted pedestal. The bull is depicted in a static pose, and the image serves as a visual record of the artifact.

: Image summary: A photograph of an ancient stone sculpture featuring two seated lions atop a decorative fluted pedestal. The image includes circles and lines pointing to different sections of the statue, indicating it is being used for educational or analytical purposes. The figure depicts a historical piece of art and its structural components.

Rampurva Bull

• Placed in President House.

• Found in Bihar.

Bihar Edicts

4 Lions

Wheel

Abacus

Andaphalaka

Inverted Lotus

• Lauriya Areraj (capital not found)

• Lauriya Nandangarh

• Barabar Hill Caves (Built by Ashoka for Buddhist monks) and Nagarjuni Caves (Built by Dashrath Maurya, grandson of Ashoka) in Bihar are considered as the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India.

Lomas Rishi Caves in Bihar.

• Konagamana/Kanakamuni Stupa leads to Rebuilt by Ashoka (after he visited Nigali Sagar).

Inscriptions

: Image summary: A photograph of a large, ancient stone pillar lying horizontally on the ground under a stone colonnade. The pillar is weathered and broken, resting amidst debris and stone fragments. It is a historical artifact preserved within a sheltered archaeological site.

Nigali Sagar Inscription (Nepal): It confirms that Ashoka enlarged the stupa of the Kanakamuni Buddha.

Rummindei Pillar inscription

• Also known as Lumbini Pillar Edict located in Nepal.

• It depicts that Ashoka traveled to the Buddha's birthplace. He reduced taxes of the people living in that area.

Image summary: A black and white photograph of an archaeological site featuring a tall, single standing column next to an excavated pit. Two people are visible in the background, providing a sense of scale. The image depicts an ancient architectural remnant in situ.

Mauryan Administration

• Saptanga Theory by Kautilya: He mentioned 7 elements to rule an administration effectively.

1. Raja: King

3. Janpada: Territory

5. Kosha: Treasury

7. Mitra: Friend

2. Amatya: Secretary

4. Durga: Fort

6. Danda: Army

Provinces under Mauryan Administration

Table: Columns: Province, Capital. Row 1. Province: Prachyapatha (East). Capital: Tosali. Row 2. Province: Avantipatha (West). Capital: Ujjain. Row 3. Province: Uttarapatha (North). Capital: Taxila. Row 4. Province: Dakshinapatha (South). Capital: Suvarnagiri. Row 5. Province: Prachi (Imperial Capital). Capital: Pataliputra.

Tax System

• Tax paid in gold: Hiranya.

Emergency tax: Pranaya.

• Taxes paid in kind by villages: Pindakara.

• Army maintenance tax: Senabhaktam.

Extra tax: Parsvam.

Two Types of Courts

1. Dharmasthiya Nyayalaya: Presided by Vyavaharika (personal disputes).

2. Kantakasodhana Nyayalaya: Presided by Pradeshta (disputes between state and people).

Officers

• Sannidhata: Chief treasury officer (C.T.O)

• Samaharta: Collector general of revenue

• Gopa: Responsible for account

• Akshapatalik: Accountant General/ Audit Officer

- Nagaraka: Responsible for city administration

- Sitadhyaksha: Superintendent of Agriculture

• Samsthadhyaksha: Responsible for market

• Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships

• Ashwadhyaksha: Commanding officer of the cavalry

• Shulkadhyaksha: Superintendent of Toll Tax

• Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of Mines

• Dhamma Mahamatta: New post created by Ashoka to check if people are following the concepts of Dhamma

Indica – Account of the Mauryan Empire by Megasthenes

• It mentions about administration and society of Mauryan period.

—Municipal Administration: Managed by 6 committees, each consisting of 5 members.

Military Administration: The army was also organized under 6 committees, each with 5 members.

• Megasthenes divided Mauryan society into 7 classes.

1. Philosophers

Trick (P.C.S Two C)

implies P

2. Cultivators/Farmers leads to C

3. Hunters and Shepherd leads to S

4. Traders

5. Warrior

6. Overseer (spy)

7. Councillor

Megasthenes described Pataliputra as a large and beautiful city, surrounded by a massive wall. The city had 570 towers and 64 gates, showcasing its grandeur and strategic importance.

Arthashastra

• Kautilya proposes a seven-part structure for the state including the king, ministers, territory, forts, treasury, military, and allies (also known as saptanga theory)

• Women occupied higher positions in society and were a part of Army.

{Society}

• Society was divided into 4 varnas.

• Social order based on the Dharma, Varna and Ashrama systems.

Antyaja: Without any caste.

• 8 types of marriages were mentioned and divorce was allowed

Provincial Administration:

• Provincial administration was divided in: Centre, Province and District Unit

- Silver was extensively used for coinage in the Mauryan Empire.

Image summary: A pyramid diagram representing a hierarchical administrative structure. The top level is the Centre, followed by the Province in the middle, and the District Unit (Vishaya and Ahara) at the broad base. This structure depicts a top-down administrative hierarchy moving from a centralized authority to localized district units.

• Sthanika: Head of several villages

• Gramika: Head of the village

Provincial Officers Centre

Province

District Unit

(Vishaya and Ahara)

• Kumar or Aryaputra or Pradeshika: Provincial head

• Mahamatya: Senior Administration officer

• Amatya: Executive officials

Yukta: Revenue Assessment

• Rajjuka: Judicial officers

Forest Regulation

• Integration: Tribal incorporation for control and revenue.

• Regulation: Forest produce under state tax and supervision.

• Conservation: Burning prohibited; protected timber and elephants.

• Recruitment: Tribes used as troops, spies, and assassins.

Ports

- West: Bharuch (Gujarat), Sopara (Maharashtra).

- East: Tamralipti (Bengal).

Note: The last ruler of Mauryan Dynasty Brihadratha Maurya was killed by his military commander Pushyamitra Shunga which led to the start of Shunga Dynasty.

Shunga Dynasty

Pushyamitra Shunga (185 B.C.E)

• Founder of Shunga Dynasty.

• Capital: Vidisha (presently in Madhya Pradesh).

• He followed Brahmanism and was a devotee of Shiva.

• He patronised Buddhism.

• Son: Agnimitra to A play by Kalidasa “Malvikagnimitra” tells a story about love of Agnimitra and Malvika.

• According to Patanjali's book "Mahabhashya", Pushyamitra Shunga performed two Ashwamedha Yagya (Patanjali was contemporary to Pushyamitra Shunga).

Devbhuti

Table: He was the last ruler of Shunga Dynasty and was killed by his Commander Vasudev., Danabhuti enlarged the Bharhut Stupa, Madhya Pradesh..

Kanva Dynasty

• Founder: Vasudeva Kanva.

• Capital: Patliputra

• Religion: Brahman Dynasty

• Kanva's were known as “Shungabhrityas” which means “Servants of Shungas”.

Satavahana Dynasty (60 B.C - 225 A.D)

• Founder: Simuka Satavahana (Associated with the Inscription of Naneghat, Maharashtra)

• Satavahanas are mentioned in Puranas.

• Satavahanas were also known as Andhras/Andhrabhityas they ruled in Deccan to Present day: Maharashtra region).

• Capital: Paithan/Pratisthan (Maharashtra).

• Greatest ruler: Gautamiputra Satkarni.

This dynasty embraced Brahmanism.

• They had matrilineal society (they took names of their mothers).

- Use of the Prakrit language can be seen.

• Satavahana Kingdom was divided into Ahara or Rashtras (means districts).

• This dynasty started the practice of donating the land to Brahman and Buddhist monks.

• Ghantasala is an ancient port and Buddhist center in Andhra Pradesh.

- They started lead coins (traded these lead coins with the Romans) and other form of coins such as Copper, Bronze, Potin.

• Satvahana ruler Vasisthiputra Pulumavi was defeated by Rudradaman I (Saka ruler).

Satakarni I (70 B.C - 60 B.C)

• He is described as the Dakshinapathapati or Lord of Dakshinapath (Deccan region) on the Nasik Inscription, by his wife Nyanika.

- His name is also mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription.

Gautamiputra Satakarni (106 A.D-130 A.D)

• Title: Ekabrahmana/Kshatriyadarpa Mardana (Destroyer of pride of Kshatriyas).

- He carried on the practice of donating the land to Brahmana and Buddhist monks.

• He claimed to have started the practice of fourfold Varna system.

• He defeated Kshatrapa Nahapana, one of the Saka rulers (this is known through Nasik Inscription built by Gautamiputra Satkarni's mother Gautami Balashri after his death).

• According to the Junagadh Inscription of Rudradaman, he was defeated by Kardamaka ruler Rudradaman I.

• He practiced Endogamy (marriage in the same clan).

Architecture

• Many Chaityas, Viharas were cut out from rocks, E.g.

Bhaja, Kanheri and Karle Caves (all in Maharashtra).

- Ajanta Caves were first to be built during their reign

• Stupas built: Amravati and Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh).

• They developed the Amravati School of Art (deep and complex carvings).

{Chedi Dynasty}

• Ruler: King Kharavela (Associated with the Hathigumpha inscription).

Region: Kalinga

• Time period: 1st century B.C.E.

Invasions from Central Asia (2nd Century B.C Onwards)

: Image summary: A historical map depicting the geopolitical layout of Western and Central Asia. The Seleucid Empire is highlighted in dark purple as a central power, bordered by the Ptolemaic Empire to the west, the Arabian Empire to the south, and the Maurya Empire to the east, alongside various smaller tribal and kingdom territories to the north. The map illustrates the strategic extent of the Seleucid Empire across a vast region spanning from the Mediterranean area toward the Indus Valley.

• Around 200 B.C.E, though no empire matched the Mauryas in size, the period was crucial for growing Indo-Central Asian contacts. It saw Invasions from multiple tribes located in the region west of China till ee-rahn.

Causes of Invasion

1. Building of the Great Wall of China.

2. Weakening of the Seleucid Empire.

Indo Greeks

Mlecchas meaning: Outsiders

• Greeks were the first to cross Hindu Kush mountain.

Bactrians are also known as Indo-Greeks.

• Most famous ruler: Meander/Milinda (converted to Buddhism) to Dialogue between Milinda and Nagasena (a Buddhist monk) written in Milindapanho.

• Menander had his capital as: Sialkot.

• They were the first to introduce Gold coins.

• They were first to introduce coins that were attributed to the King (coins had picture of the King).

• The Indo Greek king Demetrius issued coins with bilingual inscription.

• They introduced Hellenistic art (seen in Gandhara Art) in North Western region.

Sakas

• Sakas were also known as Western Kshatrapas

• They ruled in North-West and North India.

• They were also known as Scythians.

• They divided themselves into 5 branches: One of the branches settled over Western part of India that ruled until 4th Century A.D (300 A.D-400 A.D).

• The were defeated by Yueh-chis (Tribal group) before entering India.

Saka calendar: The Indian national calendar, also called the Shaka calendar or Šaka calendar, is a solar calendar that is used alongside the Gregorian Calendar by the Gazette of India.

{Rudradaman I} (130 A.D-150 A.D)

• He was the most famous Saka ruler.

- Junagarh Rock Inscriptions (also known as Girnar inscriptions) in Gujarat mentions about him.

- · Sudarshan Lake, an ancient

Junagarh Rock Inscription is the earliest rock inscription in Sanskrit language.

- irrigation reservoir near Junagarh, Gujarat, was built under Chandragupta Maurya by Governor Pushyagupta, then repaired by Ashoka's governor Tushaspha, and later restored by Rudradaman I and Skandagupta.

Vikramaditya Parmar

• In 57 B.C defeated Sakas (this marked the beginning of Vikram Samvat).

• He was the ruler of Ujjain.

• Vikramaditya became a coveted title.

Note: Parthians also came to Indian subcontinent after Sakas. St. Thomas (disciple of Jesus) is said to have visited during Gondophernes (Indo-Parthian King).

Kushans (1st Century A.D - 3rd Century A.D)

• They were also known as Yuezhis/Tocharians.

• Capital: Purushpura (Peshawar) (first) arrow Later: Mathura.

• They called themselves Devaputra that is, “Sons of Gods/King of Kings” (It shows Divinity of King).

• Sculptures of rulers of Kushans have been discovered at Mathura.

• Kushans were the first kings to issue the largest hoard of Gold coins.

• First Dynasty: Kadphises

Rulers:

-1. Kujula Kadphises (1st ruler)

2. Vima Kadphises (2nd ruler)

3. Kanishka (son of Vima Kadphises)

Image summary: A map showing The Silk Road as a red route connecting various cities across Asia, extending from China through Central Asia toward Anatolia. The route passes through key regions such as the Takla Makan Desert and the Tien Shan mountains, intersecting with other historical routes like the Great Royal Road in India. The map illustrates the vast geographical reach and the strategic network of trade hubs that linked East Asia with the West.

• The Kushans held significant power over the Silk Road, facilitating trade between China, India, and the Roman Empire.

Kanishka (127 A.D - 150 A.D)

• Kanishka was the 4th ruler in his dynasty.

- He started the Saka Era (followed by Govt. of India) in 78 A.D when he ascended the throne.

• Started: Purest form of Gold coins.

He is also known as 2nd Ashoka.

• He patronised 4th Buddhist Council.

• We get to know about him from Rabatak Inscriptions (Found in Afghanistan) which dates back to 2nd Century C.E, written in Bactrian language.

{Impact on Indian Society}

• They completely immersed themselves in indigenous culture (as warriors or Kshatriyas).

Pottery: Red Ware

• Horseman technique, Turban wearing, and Sherwani wearing were introduced.

Polity

• Introduced: Satrap system of Government (Satraps were called as “Strategos” (Military General) by Greeks.

Under Satrap system kingdom was divided into provinces, each under military governor “Mahakshatrapa” and the governors of lower status were called “Kshatrapas”.

Culture

• They worshipped Shiva and Lord Buddha.

Literature

• Buddhacharita: Ashvaghosha

Mahavatsu and Divyadana

• Kamasutra: Vatsayyana

Science

• Medicine: Charaksamhita (A book that mentions about different medicines) by Charak (Father of Medicine).

• Agnivesha Tantra: An Ancient, lost Ayurvedic text. (3rd-2nd century B.C)

Sushruta: Father of Surgery.

Gandhara School of Art vs Mathura School of Art

Table: Columns: Gandhara School of Art, Mathura School of Art. Row 1. Gandhara School of Art: Introduced by Kushan Dynasty. Mathura School of Art: It is an indigenous art that was later developed by Kushans. Row 2. Gandhara School of Art: It is a hellenistic style of Buddhist visual art.. Mathura School of Art: It deals with imagery subjects from Hinduism + Jainism + Buddhism. Row 3. Gandhara School of Art: Great detailing. Mathura School of Art: Buddha's images are largely carved in Abhay mudra. Row 4. Gandhara School of Art: Half closed eyes. Mathura School of Art: Eyes are open. Row 5. Gandhara School of Art: Halo behind Buddha's idol is not well developed. Mathura School of Art: Halo is well developed. Row 6. Gandhara School of Art: Grey sandstone is used for art. Mathura School of Art: Red sandstone is used for art.

Image summary: A photo of a stone carving depicting a seated Buddha figure with a halo, wearing draped robes and positioned in a meditative pose. It is a religious sculpture, with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A black and white photograph of a stone relief carving featuring a central Buddha figure surrounded by smaller figures and ornate, arched niches. This is a decorative architectural carving, with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A photograph of three ancient Buddhist statues standing side-by-side against a dark background. Each figure is draped in robes and stands on a small pedestal, with the middle and right figures featuring circular halos behind their heads. The image depicts a collection of historical religious sculptures.

Image summary: A black and white photograph of an ancient stone relief sculpture featuring a central figure reclining within a framed architectural niche, flanked by two standing figures on either side. The point is to document the artistic details and composition of this historical carving.

Gandhara School of Art and Mathura School of Art

Gupta Dynasty (320 A.D - 543 A.D)

• Founder: Sri Gupta (Son: Ghatotkach)

• Guptas ruled over Madhyadesha (Uttar Pradesh + Madhya Pradesh + Bihar).

• They are considered to be feudatories of Kushans.

• Sanskrit was promoted as the official language.

• The Gupta age in ancient India has been called the “Golden Age of India” because of the many achievements in the field of arts, science, and literature that Indians made under the Guptas.

{Chandragupta I} (319 A.D - 335 A.D)

Title: Maharajadhiraja

• Married to: Kumaradevi (Lichchavi Princess)

He started Gupta Era in 320 A.D/319 A.D.

• Gold coins introduced by him were called Dinars.

Samudragupta (335 A.D - 375 A.D)

• He was the most powerful and greatest king of the dynasty.

• He was a devotee of lord Vishnu and performed Ashwamedha Yagya.

• Record of his reign is mentioned in Prayag Prasasti {Allahabad Pillar Inscription to Composed by Harisena (his court poet)}.

• Samudragupta is considered to have remained undefeated in battles.

• He is titled “Napoleon of India” by V. A. Smith.

• Other titles taken: Param Bhagavat, Sarva-raj-ochchetta (uprooter of all king), Lichchavi and Kaviraja.

He has been shown playing Veena on coins.

• Samudragupta granted permission to Meghavarman, the Buddhist king of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) to build a monastery in Bodh Gaya.

{Chandragupta II} (380 A.D - 415 A.D)

- He achieved power by assassinating his brother Ramgupta and Saka invader.

- He married his brother's wife Dhruvadevi.

- He formed matrimonial alliance by marrying off his daughter Prabhavati Gupta with Vakataka Prince

Rudrasena 2.

: Image summary: A photograph of a circular gold coin or medallion featuring a high-relief carving of a seated figure in a traditional posture. This is an artifact depicting a historical figure, used here to illustrate a discussion about a royal court and the nine Navratnas.

- He was the first Gupta to introduce Silver coins after the victory over Saka ruler Rudrasimha 3 (this is mentioned in Mehrauli Iron Pillar in Delhi).

• He took the title Vikramaditya after defeating Sakas.

Samudragupta shown playing Veena on gold coin

Mehrauli Iron Pillar:

Height: 7.2 m/23 feet 8 inches

• Diameter: 41 centimeters/16inches

Image summary: A map of ancient India showing the territorial boundaries of three major powers: the Gupta Empire, the Vakataka kingdom, and the Kehatriya kingdom. The Gupta Empire covers the largest area, spanning from the northwest toward the east, with a distinct core region indicated in the center. The Vakatakas occupy the central and southern interior, while the Kehatriya kingdom is located in the west. The map illustrates the relative geographic distribution and reach of these contemporary political entities.

Image summary: A photograph of a tall, dark monolithic pillar standing in an open courtyard surrounded by stone ruins and a low fence. The image depicts a historical monument, providing a visual reference to a royal or courtly setting.

Table: Columns: Amarasimha, Lexicographer. Row 1. Amarasimha: Dhanvantri. Lexicographer: Physician. Row 2. Amarasimha: Ghatakarpara. Lexicographer: Poet. Row 3. Amarasimha: Kalidasa. Lexicographer: Shakespeare of India. Row 4. Amarasimha: Shanku. Lexicographer: Architect. Row 5. Amarasimha: Varahamihira. Lexicographer: Astronomer. Row 6. Amarasimha: Vararuchi. Lexicographer: Grammarian, Sanskrit Scholar. Row 7. Amarasimha: Vetala Bhatta. Lexicographer: Scholar & Brahmanical theologian.. Row 8. Amarasimha: Kshapanaka. Lexicographer: Astrologer.

Indirectly ruled by guptas after death of Rudrasena II (his wife ascended the throne)

- He was visited by Fa-Hein, the first Chinese traveller during his reign.

{Books}

• Kalidasa: Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Malvikagnimitra, Raghuvamsa, Meghaduta, Kumar Sambhavam, Ritusamhara

• Vetala Bhatta: Niti Pradipa, Mantrashastra

• Vishakhadatta: Mudrarakshasa (about Chandra Gupta Maurya) and Devichandraguptam (about Ramagupta and Chandragupta 2

• Aryabhatta: Surya Siddhanta

• Varahamihira: Pancha-Siddhantika (6th century A.D)

- Amarasimha: Amarkosh

• Sudraka: Mrichchhakatika (5th Century A.D), It is a love story of Charudatta and vasantasena (also known as: the little clay art).

{Kumaragupta I} (415 A.D - 455 A.D)

He was the son of Chandragupta 2.

His empire was attacked by Huns.

• He founded Nalanda University.

• He is associated with the Mehrauli Iron Pillar.

Skandagupta I (455 A.D - 467 A.D)

• He successfully resisted the attack of Huns.

• Title taken: Vikramaditya (Source: Bhitari Pillar

Inscription location in the Gazipur district of Uttar Pradesh).

• He also repaired Sudarshan lake.

• He moved his capital to Saketa and renamed it Ayodhya after the legendary city in the Ramayana.

Administration leads to Decentralised

- Empire to Bhuktis (under the charge of Uparika) Divided into districts Vishayas (under the charge of Vishaya Patis) Vithis (under the charge of Nagarpati) Villages (under the charge of Gramika)

Tirabhukti was a major administrative province (bhukti) in the Gupta Empire, corresponding to modern-day North Bihar and the Tirhut region.

Whereas Bundelkhand region was known as Jejabhukti.

Important Officers

Table: Columns: Kumarmatyas, Provincial Officer (most important Officer). Row 1. Kumarmatyas: Mahadanda Nayaka. Provincial Officer (most important Officer): Officer responsible for punishment (Minister of Justice). Row 2. Kumarmatyas: Sandhivigrahika. Provincial Officer (most important Officer): The officer of war and peace. Row 3. Kumarmatyas: Nagara Shresthi. Provincial Officer (most important Officer): Chief Banker of the city.

Harisena held all these posts except Nagara Shresthi

During the Gupta period, Chatta and Bhatta (or Chata-Bhatta) referred to the lower-ranking military and police personnel, specifically denoting regular (standing army) and irregular (temporary/mercenary) troops, respectively.

Adhisthana Adhikarana

• Adhisthana Adhikarana was an administrative/judicial division which acted as local court, revenue office and administrative supervisory body.

- It was mentioned in Gupta period inscription especially the Damodarpur Copper plates from Bengal (5th-6th century A.D)

Officers in Adhisthana Adhikarana

• Vishayapati: Head of District

• Kumaramatya: High ranking officer

• Rajasthaniya: Royal representatives of kings

• Ayukta: General Administrative officer

• Sresthin: Representative of merchant guilds/ traders

• Sarthavaha: Caravan leader

Prathama kulika: Chief artisan

• Lekhaka or Pustapala: Record keeping official

• Dutaka: Messenger

Prathama kayastha: Scribe

Taxes

Table: Columns: Bhaga, 1/6th of the produce to be paid by cultivators. Row 1. Bhaga: Bhoga. 1/6th of the produce to be paid by cultivators: Periodic supplies of fruit, flowers to the King. Row 2. Bhaga: Bali. 1/6th of the produce to be paid by cultivators: Oppressive. Row 3. Bhaga: Uparikara. 1/6th of the produce to be paid by cultivators: Extra tax. Row 4. Bhaga: Vishti. 1/6th of the produce to be paid by cultivators: Form of forced labour. Row 5. Bhaga: Halivarika. 1/6th of the produce to be paid by cultivators: To be paid by one who owned a plough. Row 6. Bhaga: Udakabhaga. 1/6th of the produce to be paid by cultivators: Tax on water. Row 7. Bhaga: Hirayana. 1/6th of the produce to be paid by cultivators: Tax for special purpose. Row 8. Bhaga: Udranga. 1/6th of the produce to be paid by cultivators: A type of Land tax. Row 9. Bhaga: Chikara. 1/6th of the produce to be paid by cultivators: An Emergency tax.

Table: The land of the Gupta period was majorly categorized into the following groups: Kshetra - Cultivable land. Khila - Wasteland. Aprahata - Jungle or forest land. Vasti - Habitable land and Gapata Sarah - Pastureland..

Culture

• Built by: Chandragupta 2

• Avatar of Lord Vishnu

Place: Udaygiri, Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh

Image summary: A photograph showing a stone structure with several rectangular pillars and openings built directly into the base of a layered rock cliff. The image depicts a dwelling or shelter integrated into the natural rock formation.

• Famous for ancient mural paintings

• Buddhist Caves

: Image summary: A photo of a large stone sculpture of a boar, with inscriptions carved into its side, situated outdoors against a blue sky and architectural ruins. It is a documentary image showing an ancient carved monument.

Image summary: A photograph of an ancient, weathered brick tower or shrine standing atop a wide, tiered stone platform under a cloudy sky. The tower features a single dark doorway and a stepped roof structure, depicting a historical architectural ruin.

Image summary: A photograph of a stepped, reddish-brown brick structure with a central arched doorway, surrounded by a low perimeter wall and greenery. It is a photo of an architectural site, with no data or analytical result to report.

Bhitargaon Temple (U.P)

• Dedicated to Lord Krishna

• It is also known as Brick Temple (one of the oldest)

Eran Pillar Inscription

- Location: Eran, Sagar District (M.P)

- Date: 510 C.E

- It mentions Bhanugupta and provides the earliest epigraphic evidence of the Sati practice (widow immolation).

Idol of Varah

Bagh Cave, Madhya Pradesh

Dashavatara Temple (Lord Vishnu)

• Place: Deogarh, Lalitpur, Uttar Pradesh

Reason of Decline of Guptas:

• The invasion of the Hunas weakened Gupta power.

• Later, Yashodharman of Malwa defeated the Hunas and also challenged Gupta authority, further diminishing their strength.

• Provincial governors and feudatories declared independence, leading to political disintegration.

Vakataka Dynasty

• Founder: Vindhyashakti

Capital: Nandivardhana, Pravarapura

• Greatest ruler: Pravarasena (only Vakataka ruler to use the title “Samrat”)

• They were feudatories of Satavahanas.

• They were the contemporaries of Guptas.

• They followed Brahmanism but also patronised Buddhism.

• They ruled in the Central and Southern part of India.

• In Puranas, they have been mentioned as Vindhyakas.

Ajanta caves

- Location: Sambhajinagar, Maharashtra.

• Build time: 2nd B.C - 6th A.D

• Total: 29 caves (4 - Chaitya and 25 - Vihara).

• Added to the unesco world heritage site in 1983.

- These are Buddhist caves built during Satavahanas and Vakatakas (Harisena).

• Total Puranas: 18

• Written by: Sage Vyasa

• Compiled in: 3rd-10th Century A.D

Pushyabhuti/Vardhana Dynasty

• Founder: Pushyabhuti

• They were ruling in Thaneshwar (now in Haryana).

• Son: Prabhakarvardhan

Prabhakarvardhan had two sons and a daughter:

Rajyavardhana (eldest)

Harshavardhana (youngest)

• Rajyashri (daughter) who married Grahamarman (he was a member of the Maukhari Dynasty, ruling at kannauj).

• Grahamarman was killed by the combined armies of Devgupta (Ruler of Malwa) and Shashanka (Ruler of Gauda). Subsequently, Rajyavardhana was also killed. Harshvardhana took revenge by defeating the Gauda King Shashanka.

Image summary: A map of India in 625 AD showing the territorial extent of several kingdoms. The Empire of Harsha dominates the north, with the Chalukyas and Pallavas holding territory in the south, and the Gauda kingdom located in the east. The map illustrates the fragmented political landscape of India during this period, with Harsha's empire as the most expansive northern power.

Harshavardhana (606 A.D-647 A.D)

• Capital: Kannauj

• Defeated: Dhruvasena 2 (ruler of Maitraka Dynasty and then married his daughter to him to secure the western boundary).

• He was a shaivite and patronised Buddhist religion.

• He authored 3 books: Ratnavali, Nagananda, and Priyadarshika.

• Biography of Harshavardhana “Harshacharitra” written by his court poet Banabhatta (he also wrote: Kadambari).

• "Sakalottarapathanatha" title given to Harshvardhana which means Lord of North India (mentioned in Chalukyan inscription).

• He was defeated by Pulakeshin 2 (Chalukyan king) on the banks of Narmada river (Battle of Narmada in 618 A.D).

• His administrative empire was divided into two parts: directly administered territories and feudatory states.

• Arunashva (Governor under Harsha) ruled after Harsha but could not establish a dynasty.

Hiuen-Tsang/Xuang-Zang:

• 2nd Chinese Traveller (1400 years ago)

He stayed in India for about 15 years.

• He traveled extensively under the patronage of Emperor Harshavardhana.

• His writings, "Si-yu-ki" (Records of the Western World), provide invaluable insights into Indian society, religion, education, and administration.

Assemblies

• Kannauj: To honour Hiuen-Tsang

- Prayag: Organised every 5 years at the confluence of Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati.

- Known as the origin of the Kumbh tradition (first historical evidence of Kumbh Mela).

Inscription

• Banskhera inscription: it is a 7th-century C.E (628 C.E) copper plate grant issued by Harshavardhana, discovered in Shahjahanpur, Uttar Pradesh. It has Harshavardhan's personal signature.

- Madhuban copper plate inscription & Sonpat inscription - are also epigraphical sources about Harsha's reign.

• Harshavardhan's Vallabhi conquest is found in - Navsari copper plate Inscription.

Ikshvaku Dynasty

• Founder: Chintamula 1

Maukhari Dynasty

• Ishanvarman, an important ruler of Maukhari Dynasty took title of Maharajadhiraja.

• Time period: 3rd - 4th century C.E

• Capital: Vijayapuri (identified with Nagarjunkonda).

• Region: Lower Krishna - Guntur valley (modern Andhra Pradesh).

Vishnukundin Dynasty

Image summary: A historical map of southern India showing the territorial distributions of various dynasties, including the Vakatakas, Kalinga, Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras, Kadambas, and Kuntala. A highlighted purple region marks the territory of the Ikshvakus between 227 and 306 AD. The map's purpose is to depict the geographical own bounds of these political entities during that specific historical period.

• Capital: Amarapuram or Amravati

Chalukya Dynasty

Image summary: A map of South India after the Kalabhras around 600 AD, depicting the territorial divisions of various dynasties. The map shows the Chalukyas in the north, with the Kadambas, Alupa, Ganges, Pallavas, Cheras, and Pandyas occupying the central and southern regions, and the Moriyas on the island of Sri Lanka. The map illustrates the geopolitical landscape of Southern India during this period.

• Chalukya Dynasty rulers were feudatories of Kadambas of Banavasi.

• They were divided into three distinct dynasties:

—Badami Chalukya (Early Chalukya) to Capital: Vatapi

Eastern Chalukya leads to Capital: Vengi

Western Chalukya (Later Chalukya) to Capital: Kalyani

Badami Chalukya

Jayasimha

He was the first ruler of this dynasty.

• Capital: Vatapi

Pulakeshin I (543 A.D-566 A.D)

He was the founder of Badami Chalukya Dynasty.

• Pulakeshin I had two son: Kirtivarman I and Mangalesha (Mangalesh was killed by Kirtivarman I's son Pulakeshin 2, who later ascended the throne).

Pulakeshin 2 (610 A.D-642 A.D)

• He is considered the greatest ruler of this dynasty.

• After defeating Harshavardhana, Pulakeshin 2 took the title of “Dakshinapatheshwara” (Lord of South).

• Titles of Pulakeshin 2: Satyashraya, Bhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameshwara, Prithvivallabha

• He also defeated Mahendravarman I (Pallava ruler) in the Battle of Pullalur.

• He was defeated in the Battle of Vatapi (642 C.E) by Narasimhavarman I (son of Mahendravarman 1), who then assumed the title “Vatapikonda” (Conqueror of Vatapi).

• Aihole Pillar Inscription (Karnataka) was about Pulakeshin 2, composed by his court poet Ravikirti.

Vikramaditya I

He was the third son of Pulakeshin 2

• He recovered Vatapi from Pallavas.

• His great grandson Kirtivarman 2 (last ruler of Badami Chalukya) was defeated by Dantidurga who later founded Rashtrakuta Dynasty.

Vinayaditya to Vijayaditya to Vikramaditya 2 to Kirtivarman 2 ↑ Attacked 3 times (Great Grandson)

on Pallavas (Defeated by

Vikramaditya I Rashtrakutas)

Chalukyan Architecture

Chalukyan Temple architecture is divided into three groups:

• Aihole: Known as Laboratory of Indian Temple Architecture.

Badami: Famous for rock-cut cave temples.

• Pattadakal: Blend of Nagara (North Indian) and Dravida (South Indian) styles.

Note: Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal are located in Karnataka.

Aihole group of temples

Image summary: A photograph of an ancient stone structure carved directly into a rock face, featuring a central recessed entrance flanked by carved figures in niches. It depicts a rock-cut architectural site, likely a cave temple or shrine.

Ravana Phadi Caves

Durga Temple

Image summary: A photo of an ancient stone temple with a tiered roof and a small tower on top, featuring a carved porch and stairs leading to the entrance. It is a documentary image showing the architecture of a historical site.

• Example of Gaja-Prishta form of architecture

- Originally dedicated to God 'Surya'

• Located in 'Bagalkot', Karnataka, Known for its unique apical design.

• Gaja-Prishta: Elliptical shaped formation seen in Dravid or Vesara form of Architecture.

Image summary: A photo of an ancient stone temple with a tiered spire and a rectangular base, situated on a grassy field under a cloudy sky. It is a descriptive image of a historical site with no data or analytical result to report.

• It is a Shiva Temple built around the 7th century by the Early Chalukyas.

Image summary: A photograph of an ancient, weathered stone structure with a tiered architectural design under a clear blue sky. It is a photo of a historical site, with no data or analytical result to report.

Meguti Jain Temple

• Only Jain temple at Aihole.

• Contains the Aihole inscription of Ravikirti.

Lad Khan Temple Dedicated to Shiva

Huchimalligudi temple, Aihole:

Pattadakal group of temple

• A total of 10 temples seen here: 4 (Nagara style) and 6 (Dravida style).

• Declared as unesco World Heritage Site in 1987.

• Pattadakal group of temples are known as “Cradle of Indian Architecture”.

Image summary: A photograph of an ancient stone temple featuring a circular colonnaded porch and a tiered, conical spire atop the structure. It is a photo of a historical architectural site, with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A photograph of a tall, tiered temple tower, likely a gopuram, illuminated at night against a backdrop of mountains. It is a scenic image of a religious site, with no data or analytical result to report.

• Dedicated to Lord Shiva.

• Built in: Dravida style.

• Built by: Queen Lokamahadevi

Image summary: A photograph of a structure carved into the side of a large, reddish-brown rock formation, featuring a rectangular opening with pillars. The image depicts a rock-cut architectural site, likely a cave temple or dwelling, integrated into the natural cliffside.

Four major rock-cut caves carved into sandstone cliffs showcasing Shaiva, Vaishnava, and Jain traditions side by side.

Image summary: A photograph of an ancient stone temple complex featuring several tiered, pyramidal towers and weathered stone structures set within a courtyard with green lawns. The image depicts a historical architectural site, serving as a visual documentation of the temple's scale and design.

Image summary: A photo of a stone Hindu temple structure consisting of a square base and a tall, tapered pyramidal tower. It is a photograph of a historical architectural site, with no data or analytical result to report.

• It is based on Mixed

architecture style:

Nagara+Dravid

• It is a part of Pattadakal

group of Temple.

Image summary: A photograph of an ancient stone temple featuring a tall, tiered pyramidal tower and an adjacent smaller structure, set against a clear sky and green landscape. It is a descriptive image of a historical architectural site, with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A photo of an ancient stone temple featuring a tiered, pyramidal tower and a pillared entrance porch. The image depicts a historical architectural structure, likely a Hindu temple, to showcase its design and weathered stone construction.

• Built in: Dravida style.

• Dedicated to: Lord Shiva.

Image summary: A photograph depicting a tall, ornate Hindu temple tower, known as a gopuram, featuring multiple tiers of intricate carvings and small openings. The tower is framed by green trees on both sides against a blue sky. It is a descriptive image of a religious structure with no data or analytical result to report.

Virupaksha Temple

Badami Rock Cut Caves

Papanatha temple

Galaganatha Temple Built in: Nagara style.

Sangameshwara Temple

Mallikarjuna temple

• Built by: Trilokadevi (wife of Vikramaditya 2).

Pallava Dynasty (575 A.D-897 A.D)

• Founder: Simha Vishnu

• Capital: Kanchipuram

Pallavas were feudatories to Kalabhras.

• They developed the Dravida architecture temples.

• Greatest ruler: Mahendravarman I

Mahendravarman I (600 A.D - 630 A.D)

• Patron of Rock-cut Architecture.

• Initially Mahendravarman was Jain then converted to Hinduism (Shaivaites).

Son: Narasimhavarman 1.

{Narasimhavarman I} (630 A.D - 668 A.D)

Title taken: Mahamalla and Vatapikonda.

• He started the Monolithic Rock cut temple.

• He founded the port city Mahabalipuram.

Last ruler: Aparajitavarman defeated by Chola king Aditya I in 897 A.D.

Pallava Architecture

Shore temple, Mahabalipuram

• Added to unesco World Heritage Site in 1984.

• Dedicated to: Lord Shiva.

• Built by: Narasimhavarman 2 (known as: Rajasimha, known for: Structured Stone temples).

• Located at Mahabalipuram facing towards Bay of Bengal in the Coromandal Coast.

Image summary: A photograph of a stone temple complex featuring two tiered, pyramidal towers of different heights standing against a blue sky. The structure is an example of Dravidian architecture, used to depict a historical religious site.

Kailasanathar temple

• Built by: Narasimhavarman 2

Made up of Granite Rock.

• Dedicated to Shiva.

Narsimhavarman 2 started standing Rock cut Architecture.

Image summary: A photograph of an ancient stone temple complex with intricately carved pillars, tiered roofs, and a tall pyramidal tower under a blue sky. The image depicts the architectural style and scale of a traditional Indian temple.

Seven Ratha temple, Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu

• Built by: Narasimhavarman I.

• These temples are also known as Pancha Rathas or Pandava Rathas.

• Called Seven Pagoda by "Marco Polo"

• Each ratha has a distinct plan, showcasing architectural diversity:

: Image summary: A photograph showing an ancient stone temple complex with multiple carved shrines and tiered roof structures, featuring a small figure of a person standing in the foreground. This photo depicts the architectural style of historical stone carvings, intended to document a cultural heritage site.

1. Draupadi Ratha leads to Simple hut-like shrine.

2. Arjuna Ratha leads to Square-plan shrine.

3. Bhima Ratha leads to Elongated hall (mandapa type).

4. Dharmaraja Ratha leads to Multi-storeyed vimana.

5. Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha leads to Apsidal (semi-circular) plan.

Rashtrakuta Dynasty (755 A.D - 982 A.D)

• Capital: Manyakheta (Modern day Malkhed, Karnataka).

• Known for their military strength, patronage of literature, and support of Jainism and Shaivism.

{Dantidurga} (735 A.D - 756 A.D)

• Founded the Rashtrakuta dynasty by overthrowing the Chalukyas of Badami.

• Assumed titles: Prithvivallabha, Rajadhiraj.

• Sanjan Plates (Copper-plate inscription of Dantidurga): Records victories over Kalinga, Malava, Lata, Tanka, Koshala, and the Gurjara king Nagabhata I.

• Performed the Hiranyagarbha Mahadana ritual at Ujjain to assert Kshatriya status.

• Defeated Kirtivarman 2, the last ruler of the Badami Chalukyas.

Krishna I (756 A.D - 774 A.D)

• He was the successor and

paternal uncle of Dantidurga.

• Patron of Shaivism.

• Continued military campaigns against Chalukyas and Pallavas.

• Constructed Kailashnatha temple at Ellora.

• Aurangzeb, the Mughal Emperor, once attempted to destroy the temple.

Le Aurangzeb: BHAIYA YE TEMPLE GIRTA KYU NAHI HAI?

Govinda 2

• Son of Krishna I, weak ruler, short reign, no significant conquests.

Dhruva Dharavarsha (780 A.D - 793 A.D)

- He expanded Rashtrakuta power into North India and initiated their role in the Tripartite Struggle.

Dhruv Dharavarsha Defeated:

- Vatsaraja (Gurjara-Pratihara ruler)

- Dharmapala (Pala ruler)

- Pallavas in the south

Govinda 3 (793 A.D - 814 A.D)

• Son of Dhruva Dharavarsha.

Title Assumed: Sarvabhauma (Universal Monarch).

• He defeated Pratihara king Nagabhatta 2 and Dharmapala of Pala dynasty.

• Considered the most aggressive Rashtrakuta ruler during the Tripartite Struggle.

• Inscriptions claim victories over Gurjaras, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and even Lanka.

He conquered Himalaya to Kaveri.

{Amoghavarsha I} (814 A.D - 878 A.D)

• Son of Govinda 3 and great grandson of Krishna 1.

• Real name: Sarva (before coronation).

• Assumed title: "Nripatunga".

• He converted to Jainism and patronised Jainism.

• Patron of literature and grammar

• He was disciple of Acharya Jinasena, who authored the Adi Purana during his reign.

• Saktayana, grammarian in his court, composed Amoghavritti (Sanskrit grammar).

• Amoghavarsha himself authored: Kavirajamarga (earliest known Kannada literary work) and Prashnottara Ratnamalika (in Sanskrit).

• Referred to as "Ashoka of the South" for his non-violent policies and Jain influence.

Krishna 2

• Faced stiff resistance from Eastern Chalukyas and Cholas.

• Could not expand the empire like his predecessors and saw stagnation in territorial expansion.

Indra 3 (914 A.D - 928 A.D)

• Briefly restored Rashtrakuta supremacy by occupying Kannauj during the Tripartite Struggle, defeating Pratihara Mahipala I.

• Assumed titles: Ratta Kandarpa (meaning "Rashtrakuta Cupid") and Nityovarsha (symbolizing prosperity).

• Described by Arab traveler Al-Masudi in his book Muraj ul-Zuhab (Book of Golden Meadows).

Govinda 4

- His reign marks the beginning of the decline of the Rashtrakuta empire.

Amoghavarsha 2

• Short and insignificant reign, overshadowed by internal conflicts.

Krishna 3 (939 A.D - 967 A.D)

• Considered the last great Rashtrakuta ruler.

• Successfully invaded the Chola territory and captured Tanjore (Thanjavur) by defeating Chola king Prantaka I in the Battle of Tokkolam in 949 A.D.

• Took the grand imperial title: Akhilakshtrakuta Chakravartin (Universal Emperor of all Rashtrakutas).

- Defeated Eastern Chalukyas, maintaining supremacy in the Deccan.

• At the peak of his reign, controlled territory from Gujarat to Tanjore.

Khottiga (967 A.D - 972 A.D)

Also Known as Karka 2.

• Karka 2 Defeated by Tailopa 2 who established Later Chalukya.

• Faced attack from Paramara ruler Siyaka 2, who sacked the Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta, marking the start of Rashtrakuta decline.

This attack significantly weakened the dynasty.

Manyakheta was destroyed, marking a symbolic end of Rashtrakuta power.

Indra 4 (973 A.D - 982 A.D)

Last Rashtrakuta Ruler.

• Committed Sallekhana, the Jain ritual of voluntary death by fasting.

Power passed to the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani, under Tailapa 2.

• Tailapa 2 was once a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas and founded a new dynasty, Chalukyas of Kalyani.

Architecture

• Ellora caves

Location: Sambhajinagar, Maharashtra.

• Build time: 6th - 11th century A.D.

• Total 34 caves.

• Cave 1 - 12: Associated to Buddhism (Patronised by Kalachuris and Early Chalukya).

• Cave 13 - 29: Associated to Hinduism (Patronised by Rashtrakutas).

Cave 30 - 34: Associated to Digambar Jainism (Patronised by Rashtrakutas).

Image summary: A photograph of the Kailasa Temple at Ellora, showing a massive monolithic structure carved directly into a rock cliff, featuring intricate facades, a tall central pillar, and a sculpted elephant in the foreground. The image depicts the scale and craftsmanship of this rock-cut architecture.

• Built by Krishna I

• World's largest Monolithic Rock Cut Temple.

• Present at 16th Ellora cave.

• Added to unesco World Heritage site in 1983 along with Ajanta - Ellora caves.

Kailasha Temple at Ellora (Dedicated to Lord Shiva).

Elephanta Caves

• Build time: 5th-7th century A.D.

• Total 7 caves.

• Built by Rashtrakutas and later Kalachuri Dynasty.

• Three-head idol of Shiva (Trimurti) can be seen here.

Image summary: A photograph showing a rock-cut architectural structure carved directly into a cliffside, featuring a series of pillars and a flat courtyard area with several people standing before it. The image depicts an ancient cave temple or monument, illustrating the scale of the excavation and the integration of the structure with the natural rock formation.

• Added to unesco world heritage in 1987.

Dashavatara Temple

• Dedicated to: Lord Vishnu.

• It is studied as a bridge between Gupta art and post-Gupta temple culture.

Image summary: A photograph of an ancient, weathered stone structure, featuring a central tiered tower rising from a wider, stepped platform base. This is a historical architectural site, depicting the ruins of a temple or monument.

Dynasties that emerged after the Rashtrakutas and Their Regional Influence

Table: Columns: Dynasty, Region, Relation to Rashtrakutas. Row 1. Dynasty: Western Chalukyas (Kalyani). Region: Karnataka. Relation to Rashtrakutas: Direct successors. Row 2. Dynasty: Paramaras. Region: Malwa. Relation to Rashtrakutas: Former Feudatories. Row 3. Dynasty: Kalachuris (Tripuri). Region: Madhya Pradesh. Relation to Rashtrakutas: Regional beneficiaries. Row 4. Dynasty: Yadavas (Seuna). Region: Maharashtra. Relation to Rashtrakutas: Former Feudatories. Row 5. Dynasty: Eastern Chalukyas. Region: Andhra Pradesh. Relation to Rashtrakutas: Strengthened & Expanded due to vacuum. Row 6. Dynasty: Cholas. Region: Tamil Nadu.

{Chalukyas of Kalyani (Later Chalukyas)}

Table: Columns: Aspects, Details. Row 1. Aspects: Period. Details: 973 to 1189 CE. Row 2. Aspects: Founder. Details: Tailapa 2. Row 3. Aspects: Capital. Details: Kalyani. Row 4. Aspects: Famous Ruler. Details: Vikramaditya 6. Row 5. Aspects: Architecture. Details: Gadag style. Row 6. Aspects: Successors. Details: Hoysalas.

Image summary: A map showing the extent of the Chalukya Dynasty, represented by a pink shaded region covering a large portion of central and southern India. The region encompasses areas such as the Pitinkas and Andhra, spanning across several river systems including the Godavari and Krishna. The map illustrates the geographical reach of the Chalukya Dynasty relative to other regional groups and major cities of the time.

Parmar Dynasty

Table: Columns: Aspects, Details. Row 1. Aspects: Region. Details: Malwa. Row 2. Aspects: Capital. Details: Dhara. Row 3. Aspects: Famous Ruler. Details: Raja Bhoja. Row 4. Aspects: Architecture. Details: Malwa Nagara style. Row 5. Aspects: Origin. Details: Ex-feudatories of Rashtrakutas.

Image summary: A map showing the territorial extent of the Paramaras, depicted as a brown shaded region in central and northern India. Labeled cities within or near this region include Sthanvishvara, Indraprastha, Candravati, Ujjayini, Dhara, and Seunapura. The map serves to illustrate the geographical reach of the Paramara dynasty's influence.

• Statue of Raja Bhoja, a legendary Indian king from the 11th century.

• Location: The 32-foot-high bronze statue is located at the Upper Lake in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Raja Bhoja wrote a book

"Sarasvatikanthabharana"

• Bhojatal Lake of Bhopal provides 40% water supply.

• Paramaras were devotees of Shiva.

Kalachuri Dynasty

Table: Columns: Aspects, Details. Row 1. Aspects: Capital. Details: Tripuri (MP). Row 2. Aspects: Period. Details: 9th-12th CE. Row 3. Aspects: Religion. Details: Shaivism. Row 4. Aspects: Architecture. Details: Central Indian Nagara. Row 5. Aspects: Key Ruler. Details: Lakshmikarna. Row 6. Aspects: Famous Region. Details: Amarkantak.

Image summary: A map highlighting the territory of the Later Kalachuris in brown, situated in northern and central India. The region encompasses several labeled cities including Nagarakota to the north, Ujjayini to the west, Vijayapura to the east, and Kataka to the south, showing the geographic extent of the Later Kalachuri domain.

Hoysala Dynasty

• They were feudatory to Chalukyas of Kalyani

Capital: Dwarasamudra (Halebidu)

• Founder: Nripa Kama 2

Table: Columns: Aspects, Details. Row 1. Aspects: Period. Details: 10th-14th CE. Row 2. Aspects: Capital. Details: Belur / Halebidu. Row 3. Aspects: Greatest Ruler. Details: Vishnuvardhana. Row 4. Aspects: Architecture. Details: Stellate soapstone temples. Row 5. Aspects: Architecture. Details: Gadag style. Row 6. Aspects: Successors. Details: Vijayanagara Empire.

Architecture

: Image summary: A photograph of an ancient stone temple complex featuring a tall, tiered tower and adjacent carved structures set against a clear sky and a grassy foreground. The image depicts a historical architectural site, with no data or analytical result to report.

Image summary: A map of southern India featuring an orange shaded region that highlights a historical territory. Three locations are marked within or on the border of this region: Dvarasanudra, marked with a star, and the cities of Kancipuram and Thanjavur. The image serves to illustrate the geographical extent and key sites of a specific historical domain in the region.

Image summary: A photograph of an ancient stone temple complex featuring two large, ribbed dome-like towers flanking a central entrance with tiered platforms and intricate carvings. It is a descriptive photo of historical architecture, with no data or analytical result to report.

Table: Columns: Image Chennakeshava Temple (Belur, Karnataka), Star-shaped temple. Built by: King Vishnuvardhana. Style of architecture: Bhumija style of architecture. Dedicated to: Lord Vishnu. Chenna means 'Beautiful' and Keshava means 'Vishnu'. Built in soapstone (chloritic schist). Row 1. Image, Hoysaleswara Temple (Halebidu, Karnataka) 42nd UNESCO World Heritage site Dedicated to: Lord Shiva 3 Jain Basadis are within the complex.. Row 2. Pulakeshin 2 defeated Harshavardhana, Image. Row 3. Pulakeshin 2 defeated Mahendravarman I, Image. Row 4. Narsimhavarman I defeated Pulakesin 2, Image.

Lakkundi Temple (Vesara style) • Developed during later Chalukyas (Kalyani)

Somnathpura Temple (Karnataka)

• Built by: Hoyasala Dynasty

Tripartite Struggle

• A prolonged political and military conflict between 8th - 10th C.E to control Kannauj, a symbol of imperial legitimacy in North India.

• It is also known as Kannauj Triangle War.

• Fought among three powerful dynasties:

1. Palas: East India (Bengal region).

2. Pratiharas: West and Central India (Rajasthan, M.P, Gujarat).

3. Rashtrakutas: Deccan (Maharashtra and Karnataka).

Image summary: A map of the Indian subcontinent between 750 and 900 AD depicting the territories of three major empires: the Rashtrakutas in the south and center, the Gurjara-Pratiharas in the northwest, and the Palas in the east. The three empires converge near the city of Kannauj, illustrating a geopolitical struggle for control over this strategic region known as the Kannaui Triangle.

Pala Dynasty

• Founder: Gopala

• They were followers of Mahayana Buddhism.

• Rulers: Gopala to Dharmapala to Devapala to Mahipala to Ramapala.

Gopala (750 A.D minus 770 A.D)

• Elected by local leaders to end anarchy in Bengal.

He was founder of Odantapuri University.

Dharmapala (770 A.D minus 810 A.D)

• Most expansionist Pala rulers.

Title: Paramsaugat.

• Founded Vikramashila University (famous for Vajrayana or Tantrik Buddhism studies (Bhagalpur, Bihar)) & Sompura University.

• He defeated Indrayudh and conquered Kannauj for a brief time and established Chakrayudh as puppet ruler.

• After winning Kannauj, he assumed the title "Uttarapath Swami" (Lord of the North).

• He was defeated by Dhruva Dharavarsha (Rashtrakuta king) in a battle near Munger, Bihar.

• Fought against Vatsaraja (Pratiharas) and Govinda 3 (Rashtrakuta).

{Devapala} (810 A.D - 850 A.D)

• He expanded the Pala Empire to its greatest extent, conquering Assam, Odisha, and parts of the Deccan.

• Sent Buddhist missions to Sri Lanka, Burma, and Java.

• Strengthened the Pala navy for overseas missions and coastal control.

• Continued patronage of Nalanda and Vikramashila universities.

• The Shailendra king Balaputradeva (from Srivijaya, Southeast Asia) requested and received grants for a monastery at Nalanda from Devapala.

- Devapala granted land revenue from 5 villages for this monastery.

• Notable Buddhist monks during his reign: Dipankar Atisha came from Tibet, studied at Vikramashila and Nalanda, Dharmasvami - Another respected monk active during this period.

Mahipala I (988 A.D - 1038 A.D)

• He revived the Pala dynasty after decline, recovering northern and eastern Bengal and Bihar.

• Mentioned in the Kalhana's Rajatarangini (written in Sanskrit language in 12th century A.D).

Successors

Nayapala to Vigrahapala 3 to Mahipala 2 to Ramapala

• The period of decline began.

• Faced attacks from the Kalachuri and Sena dynasties.

- Among them, Ramapala was the last notable ruler who tried to revive the empire.

Madana Pala

• Defeated by Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty.

His defeat marked the end of Pala rule in Bengal.

{Sena Dynasty}

• Founder: Hemanta Sena (c. 1095 A.D).

• Real Founder: Vijaysena.

• Capital: Vijayapura.

• Highly Centralised Monarchy.

• The Sena Dynasty ruled Bengal after the Pala dynasty (11th-12th century A.D).

During Sena Dynasty rule Jaydeva wrote Gita Govinda.

• They revived Brahmanism (orthodox Hinduism) in Bengal.

• Rulers: Ballala Sena, Lakshman Sena.

Ballala Sena introduced 'Kulinism'.

• His successor, Vijaya Sena, reigned for over 60 years, solidifying the dynasty's control.

• Dhakeshwari Temple in Dhaka was built in the 12th century C.E by King Ballala Sen.

• In 1204 Bakhtiyar Khilji attacked Lakshman sena and ended the Sena Dynasty.

Gurjara Pratihara

{Nagabhatta I} (730 A.D - 760 A.D)

• Capital: Kannauj/Bhinmal

• Founder of the dynasty.

• Defeated Arab forces in

Agnikul Theory related to Gurjar Pratihars is written in the Prithviraj Raso.

- Rajasthan (Battle near Broach) in the 8th century.

Vatsaraja

• First Pratihara king to enter the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj.

• Faced defeat by Dharmapala (Pala king).

Nagabhatta 2

- He recovered Kannauj.

- He defeated Dharmapala but was defeated by Govinda 3 (Rashtrakuta ruler).

Ramabhadra

• Son of Nagabhata 2 (a weak ruler, short reign).

Mihir Bhoja or Bhoja I (836 A.D - 885 A.D)

Most powerful ruler of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty.

• He extended the empire from Gujarat to Bengal.

• Adopted divine title: Adivaraha (Boar incarnation of Vishnu).

• Coins issued with Varaha Image (boar symbol).

• Described by Arab travelers (like Sulaiman) as: “Enemy of Islam” and one of the four great kings of the world in their view.

Gwalior Inscription:

• Record defeat of Govinda 3's army at Sagar Tal (though Rashtrakutas claim the opposite).

• Proclaims Bhoja's power and victory in Madhya Bharat.

• Defeated Devapala (Pala ruler) in battle. Reasserted Pratihara supremacy in the Kannauj region.

Mahendrapala (885 A.D - 910 A.D)

• Son of Mihira Bhoja.

• Successfully maintained the strength and prosperity of the Pratihara empire.

• Ruled over a vast territory from Punjab to Bengal.

• Launched a military campaign against Kashmir: Fought with Shankaravarman (Karkota ruler of Kashmir) and was defeated in the campaign.

His court became a major center of Sanskrit learning and literature.

• He patronized Rajashekhara, a celebrated Sanskrit poet and dramatist, often called the “Kalidasa of the Pratiharas.”

• Under Mahendrapala's patronage, Rajashekhara composed several important works:

—Karpuramanjari-Prakrit play (the only known Prakrit drama of that time).

——Viddhasalabhanjika-Sanskrit drama.

— Bal Ramayana— Condensed version of the Ramayana.

— Bal Mahabharata— Condensed version of the Mahabharata.

—Harivilasa-Epic work on Lord Krishna.

—Bhuvanakosha— Descriptive geography of the known world.

—Kavyamimamsa-Treatise on literary criticism and theory.

Mahipala I

• He was defeated by Indra 3, the Rashtrakuta ruler, around 915 C.E.

• This defeat led to the loss of Kannauj and marked the beginning of the Pratihara Empire's decline.

{Bhoja II}

• A weak ruler, under whose reign internal conflicts weakened the empire

Vijayapala

- He ruled during the decline of the Pala dynasty and lost many territories to rival powers.

{Rajyapala}

• Led during Mahmud of Ghazni's invasion in 1018 C.E, offering no resistance.

• His inaction was widely condemned, and he was later killed by the Chandela ruler Vidyadhara for capitulating to Mahmud.

Trilochanapala

He ruled during the collapse of the Pratihara state.

{End of Dynasty}

• The Pratiharas lost power due to external invasions, and internal fragmentation among feudatories.

• Their decline marked the end of the Tripartite Struggle (Pratiharas-Palas-Rashtrakutas) for control of Kannauj.

Chola Dynasty (850 A.D - 1280 A.D)

• Founder: Vijayalaya Chola

• Initial capital: Uraiyur

• They were feudatories to Pallavas.

• Region: Tamil Nadu, parts of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.

Note: Do not get confused between the early Cholas that ruled during Sangam Age (3rd Century B.C-3rd Century A.D) and later Cholas, who ruled between 9th and 13th Century A.D.

• Religion: Primarily Shaivism (Lord Shiva worship), but tolerant toward other faiths.

• Known For: Strong naval power, magnificent temple architecture (Dravidian style), and an efficient local self-administrative system.

• Most Powerful ruler: Rajendra Chola.

Vijayalaya Chola (850 A.D - 871 A.D)

• He captured Thanjavur (Tanjore) from the Muttaraiyars (chiefs of the Kaveri delta) and this marked the firm establishment of Chola rule in South India.

• He built a temple dedicated to goddess Nishumbhasudini (a form of Durga) at Thanjavur.

Title: Narkesari (Lion among men).

Aditya I (871 A.D - 907 A.D)

• Son of Vijayalaya.

- Defeated the Pallavas king Aparajita, which marked the decline of Pallava power and rise of Cholas.

• Extended Chola influence in the Kaveri Valley.

• After conquering the Madurai and Tirunelveli (Pandya Mandalam) regions, he assumed the title "Maduraikonda" (Conqueror of Madurai).

Prantaka I (907 A.D-955 A.D)

• He lost to Rashtrakuta king Krishna 3 (in the Battle of Takkolam) who made a Victory Pillar and Krishneshwara temple at Rameshwaram.

• The Uttaramerur inscription mentions Parantaka I.

• He defeated Pandyas at Vellore and temporarily occupied Sri Lanka.

• Assumed the title: "Madurai yum Elamum Konda" (Conqueror of Madurai and Lanka).

• Issued coins called: Kasu (small denomination) and Kalanju (gold coin).

Raja Raja I (985 A.D-1014 A.D)

He was the real founder of Chola imperialism.

- He defeated Cheras at Trivandrum and conquered Madurai from Pandyas.

• He conquered Maldives and invaded Sri Lanka.

• Permitted the Shailendra king (from Srivijaya dynasty, Southeast Asia) to construct a Buddhist temple Monastery at Nagapattinam called Chudamani Vihara (Symbol of diplomatic and religious tolerance).

• Introduced a land revenue system, organized departments like P.W.D.

{Rajendra I} (1014 A.D-1044 A.D)

He was the son of Raja Raja I.

• He is also known as "Napoleon of South India".

• Launched naval expeditions

Mahmud of Ghazanavi was a contemporary of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I.

to Sri Lanka, Burma, the Andaman Islands, and Srivijaya (Southeast Asia).

• He completely conquered Sri Lankan (Ceylon) capital Anuradhapura.

• He crossed Ganga and defeated two local Kings of Bengal and took the title "Gangaikondachola" and built the city Gangaikondacholapuram as the new capital.

• He built Chola Gangam Lake (Ponneri lake), situated within the vicinity of Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his northern campaign.

• Sent an army to Ganga, brought Ganga water in a golden pot.

• Conquered Andhra, Odisha, and Bengal and took the chola empire to its peak.

Successors

Rajadhiraja I to Rajendra 2 to Virarajendra

• Continued imperial dominance.

• Faced resistance from Western Chalukyas and Pandya

Kulottunga I

• United Chola and Eastern Chalukya lineages.

• Focused more on administration and consolidation rather than aggressive expansion.

• Promoted trade with Southeast Asia and China

Later Cholas (Kulottunga 2 - Rajendra 3)

• Gradual decline of power.

• Chola fought against the Western Chalukyas (Kalyani).

- The final blow came with defeat by Pandyas in the 13th century.

Aftermath:

• Later Cholas were replaced by Pandyas and Hoysalas in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

• Later Chalukyas were replaced by Yadavas (Devagiri) and Kakatiyas (Warangal) in the Deccan.

Image summary: A map of Southern Asia and Southeast Asia depicting Chola Territory in orange and Chola Influence in green. Red lines illustrate trade routes connecting the Chola heartland in Southern India to regions including Sri Lanka, the Malay Archipelago (Srivijaya), and the coast of East Asia. The map shows that the Chola Empire exerted significant territorial control and strategic influence across a vast maritime network connecting India to Southeast Asia.

Administration

• The king of Chola Dynasty has all the authority.

• He had Council of Ministers to advice him.

• Chola Empire was divided into: Mandalams (province) which was further divided into Valandu (districts) leading to Nadus (sub-districts) leading to Kurram (group of villages) leading to Ur (village).

Chola Government

• Cholas are known for local (decentralised)/village government.